- COMMON WEEDS FOUND IN FARM LANDS
- CROP IMPROVEMENT
- BASIC ECONOMIC PRINCIPLE
- FARM RECORDS
- SS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: FARM ACCOUNTS
- ANIMAL NUTRITION
- SS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: ANIMAL NUTRITION (II)
Common Weeds Found In Farm Lands
WEEK 1 & 2
Agricultural Science. S.S.S 2 Third Term
TOPIC : Common weeds found in farm lands
Introduction
Weed is any plant that grows in a place where it is not expected to grow or plant which grows out of place. A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, “a plant in the wrong place”. Weed is any plant that grows in a place where it is not expected to grow or a plant which grow out of place. Such a plant constitutes nuisance either to man, livestock or plants.
Common Name: Spear grass
Botanical Name: Heteropogoncontorous
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: They grow on poor soil as well as soil with high acidity.
Description of Characteristics:
- They are cool seasoned tufted perennial grasses
- The foliage grows from 10 -20cm high.
- Most species flowers in spring.
Common Name: Day flower
Botanical Name: Commelina communis
Family: Commelinaceae
Habitat: It strives in edges of garden and yards, fence row; vacant lots and waste areas.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is about 1-3m long
- It can be erect or spraw across the ground like vine .
- The round stems are smooth and hairless.
- Their margins are smooth and veins runs parallel to each other .
- Upper edge of the sheath is usually hairless.
- Each flower blooms during the morning for a single day.
Common Name: Elephant grass
Botanical Name: Pennistrum purpureum
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: It is found on wide range of soils.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a tall grass.
- It grows in dense clumps of up to 10 feet tall.
- In the savannah of Africa, it grows along lake beds and rivers where the soil is rich.
- They are yellowish or purple in colour .
- The stems are coarse and hairy
- The leaves are 2-3 feet long
- The edges of the leaves are razor sharp.
Common Name: Turbina
Botanical Name: Turbina corymbosa
Family: Convolvulaceae
Habitat: It grows along rainforest margins and water ways
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a scrambling vine growing to at least 8 meters in height.
- Its leaves are heart shaped.
- It produces many branched flowers.
Common Name: Fire weed
Botanical Name: Chamerion angustitolium
Family: Onagraceae
Habitat: It is found on wet cancerous to slightly acidic soil in open field.
Description of Characteristics:
- The reddish stems of this weed are usually simple .
- The leaves are entire and pinnately veined.
- The radically symmetrical flower has four magneta to pink petals.
Common Name: Wild snake gourd
Botanical Name: Trichosanthes cveumerina
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Habitat: Wet region.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a green vegetable with broad leaf
- It is sometimes taken as vegetable or for medical purposes
Common Name: Gamba Grass
Botanical Name: Andropogon gayaanus
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: It grows on lowland areas in region with tropical and warmer sub tropical climates.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a large, long-live grass reaching up to 4cm in height
- Its stems are robust and are quite hairy.
- Its seed (7-9cam long) are hairy and have a large, bent and twisted awn.
Common Name: Bahama Grass
Botanical Name: Cynodon dactylon
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: It strives in warm climate
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a perennial evergreen grass.
- It is grating at the rate of 0.3m by 0.5m at a medium rate.
- Its blades are grey-green colour.
- Its blades are short.
Common Name: Balrush
Botanical Name: Scipsus tuberasus
Family: Cyperaceae
Habitat: It lives in humid habitat.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a long flower grass between 4-6cm
- Its flowering period is between March- October.
Common Name: Swinecrees
Botanical Name: Coronopus didymus
Family: Brassicaceae
Habitat: commonly seen in garden and road sides.
Description of Characteristics:
- It grows all year round.
- It has broad leaf.
Common Name: False Daisy
Botanical Name: Eclipla alba
Family: Asteraceae
Habitat: Gardens and Roadsides
Description of Characteristics:
- It has a broad leaf.
- It is a long grass with white flower.
Common Name: Garden sponge
Botanical Name: Euphorbia hirta
Family: Eurphorbiaceae
Habitat: It grows in both wet and dry climates.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a deep rooted weed.
- It has small leaf.
- It is a weed with flowers.
Common Name: Spear Grass
Botanical Name: Imperata cylinderica
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: Poor soil as well as soil with high acidity.
Description of Characteristics:
- They are cool seasoned tufted perennial grasses.
- Most species flower in springs or dry season.
Common Name: Giant Star Grass
Botanical Name: Cynodon plectostachyles
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: Grows in both good soil and acidic soil.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a perennial grass without rhizomes .
- There is absence of seed.
Common Name: Neetle leaf goosefoot
Botanical Name: Chenopodium murale
Family: Amaranthaceae
Habitat: Fields and Roadsides.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is an annual weed of up to 70cm in height.
- the oval to triangular leaves are toothed and broad .
- The inflorescence are powdery clusters of spherical buds.
Common Name: Rhodes Grass
Botanical Name: Chloris gayama
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: It strives in normal soil.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is 1-2m tall
- It spreads by root runners
- It is a poor water logging tolerant weed
- It requires high fertility to survive
Common Name: Sickle pod
Botanical Name: Senna obtusifolia
Family: Leguminosae
Habitat: Agricultural field, roadsides and waste sites.
Description of Characteristics:
- The compound leaf are arranged spirally.
- It is a herb that grows up to 5 feet tall.
- It is spreading with numerous ascending, hairless branches.
Common Name: Leaf flower
Botanical Name: Phyllanthus mirabilis
Family: Phyllantheae
Habitat: Commonly found on roadsides.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a short grown herb.
- It has short leaves.
Common Name: Horse Purslane
Botanical Name: Trianthema protulacastrum
Family: Alzoaceae
Habitat: Cultivated areas.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is green to red in colour
- It is hairless except for small lines of hairs nears the leaves.
- Solidarity flower occur in leaf axile
Common Name: Wire Grass
Botanical Name: Eleusine indica
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: Fields, lawns and along the roads.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is evergreen in colour
- It has a short growth
- It grows all year round
Common Name: Day Flower
Botanical Name: Commelina lukei
Family: Commelinaceae
Habitat: Gardens and yards.
Description of Characteristics:
- The round stems are smooth and hairless.
- It can be erect or spraw across the ground like vine.
- Upper edge of the sheath is usually hairless.
- Their margins are smooth and veins runs parallel to each other.
Common Name: Para Grass
Botanical Name: Brachiara mutica
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: Acidic and normal soil.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a perennial grass.
- It can grow up to 1m or taller.
- It has horizontal stems called stolons.
- Its inflorescence grows on a primary axis.
Common Name: Guinea Grass
Botanical Name: Panicum maximum
Family: Poaceae
Habitat: Both acidic and normal soil.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a tufted perennial grass
- It is usually in large bunches
- It has a large flat green leaves
Common Name: Spiny Amaranth
Botanical Name: Amaranthus spinosus
Family: Amarantacene
Habitat:It is commonly found in field.
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a herbaceous weed with broad leaves
- It grows annually.
- Its colour ranges from green to red.
Common Name: Fire plant
Botanical Name: Euphorbia heterophylla
Family: Euphorbiceae
Habitat: Fertile soil.
Description of Characteristics:
- A hardy specie growing between 30-70cm in height.
- Its false flowers are located in clusters.
- They have no petals.
- Resistant to herbicide.
Common Name: Water Grass
Botanical Name: Commelina diffusa
Family: Commelinaceae
Habitat: It grows on shallow water.
Description of Characteristics:
- Its leaves can be underwater to 3 feet
- It is a perennial grass
- It forms dense colonies in shallow water
Common Name: Saw Grass
Botanical Name: Cladium jamaicensa
Family: Cyperaceae
Habitat: It is mostly found in wet areas
Description of Characteristics:
- It is a tall grass
- It grows only on wet region
Common Name: Alligator Weed
Botanical Name: Alternathera philoxeroids
Family: Amaranthaceae
Habitat: It can grow on damp soil or on water
Description of Characteristics:
- It has a simple leaf which is elliptic.
- It can reduce water flow or quality by preventing light penetration.
- It flowers during the warm month
Common Name: Wild sun Flower
Botanical Name: Aspilia Africana
Family: Asteraceae
Habitat: Found on both fertile and acidic soil.
Description of Characteristics:
- it has a yellow flower
- It has a pleasant smell
- It is used in feeding hares
Common Name: Water Leaf
Botanical Name: Talinum triangulare
Family: Talinaceae
Habitat: Wet Land.
Description of Characteristics:
- An erect fleshy- leafed herb of open ground
- It flowers on maturity
- Ever green in colour
- Length is about 2-3cm in height at maturity
Effect/economic importance of weed
- Weeds compete with crops for space – When a young crop is developing, weeds rapidly crowd and smother the plant and the space needed for healthy living.
- Weeds compete with crops for sunlight – Weeds are capable of producing many large leaves which may grow and cover other plants around it.
- Weed compete with crops for nutrients – The roots of weeds develop rapidly and remove considerable amount of nutrients from the soil
- Weeds harbour crop pest and diseases – Some weeds may harbour crop pests and diseases
- Weed compete with crop for soil moisture – Their roots are capable of developing fast and removing large portion of moisture
- Losses in crop yield
- Weeds compete with crop for soil oxygen
- Losses in quality of crops
- Losses in income to farmers – The low yield coupled with the reduction in quality of produce affects the income of farmers.
- Some weeds are toxic to farm animal
However some weeds are still useful to the farmers in the following ways
- Some weeds can act as cover crops
- Some are used as forage grasses and legumes for feeding farm animals
- Some are used to prepare compost manure
- Some weeds can control soil erosion
- Certain weeds have medicinal properties.
- Some weeds are used for roofing and mat making.
- Weeds are used for compost making.
- Leguminous weeds harbour bacteria that help fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil
Reasons for Controlling Weeds
- They can cause losses in crop yields
- They lead to increased cost of farm operations
- Increased cost of harvesting
- Reduced quality of animal products
- Certain weeds are poisonous
- Reduced quality of crop produce
Characteristics and growth habits of selected weeds
- Production of large quantity of seeds
- Some weeds reproduce by seed
- Some weed reproduce by vegetative
- Growth of large leaves within a short time
- Weeds growth is favoured during rainy season
- Most weed are wind pollinated
Methods of dispersal of weeds
- By wind – The fruits and seeds of many weeds are carried by winds and they are spread from one place to another
- By Animals – Animals like rabbits, rats, squirrels and man are involved in the dispersal of weed seeds. Animal dispersed seeds usually have sticky fruits or seeds which may adhere to the coat of the animal and they are carried from one place to another
- By Water – Seeds of weeds may fall into water and are thus transported as the water carries it along as it moves.
General Control of Weeds
- Mechanical or Physical Control
– Hand pulling or hand picking
– Hoeing
– Slashing
– Rotary Cultivation - Biological Control – Introduction of some insects and herbivorous animals to eat up leaves of weeds
- Cultural Control
– Flooding
– Burning
– Mulching
– Cover cropping
– Crop rotation - Chemical Control – The use of chemical solutions to control the growth of weeds
Common weeds found in farms
Examples are:
Crabgrass:
Crabgrass tops America’s list of lawn complaints. A fast-growing annual that reproduces by seeds and by rooting at the lower joints. This weed appears from mid-spring through summer when the ground is warm. It grows well under dry, hot conditions. Go after crabgrass as soon as it appears in the garden. Dig it out by the roots with a spading fork or cover it with black plastic. Don’t let it go to seed.
To prevent crabgrass in the future, attack the problem in two stages. In the early spring, apply corn gluten meal, an organic preemergent herbicide. Spring is when the soil is cold and the crabgrass is weakest. (Crabgrass is an annual weed, so it starts from seed every year. The preemergent herbicide prevents the seed from germinating–and if the seed can’t sprout, it can’t grow.) Second, re-seed your lawn in the fall. This will allow the new grass time to grow strong before the next summer’s attack.
The best crabgrass preventer is a healthy, thick lawn, and soil with the proper pH balance (7.0-7.5). Perennial ryegrass is the best competition for crabgrass. It also provides some insect control, as it emits a natural poison that gives some small, damaging bugs the “flu.” Fertilizing is key and must be done in the spring and in the fall. Crabgrass thrives in compacted lawns. Aeration can help. A mixture of 1 pint of hydrogen peroxide, diluted to 3 percent, per 100 square feet of lawn can help eradicate the pesky plant.
Pigweed:
An annual that reproduces by seeds. It is characterized by its fleshly, red taproot. This weeds appears in late spring or early summer and likes warm weather. Try to pull out this weed before it flowers.
To prevent weeds in the future, cover your garden plot with a winter mulch, then till the garden shallowly in early spring. When you till you may bring up some pigweed seed so it’s best to mulch again. Cover the soil with five layers of wet newspaper and cover that with 3-6 inches of mulch.
Pigweed can also be eaten! In June, the young leaves of amaranthus blitum or amaranth are abundant and should be eaten because of their high nutritional content. Vitamin-wise, these greens are packed like carrots and beets and can be delicious in a tossed salad. You can also cook them as you would spinach. Native Americans used the black seeds of this plant as a ground meal for baking.
Chickweed
There are two species of chickweed, one perennial and one annual. Mouse-ear chickweed is the perennial, which forms a dense, prostrate patch in lawns and gardens. Common chickweed, the annual, is more delicate in appearance, with leaves that are broad at the base and about half an inch long.
Common chickweed is easier to control. Both types have shallow roots, so they can often be removed by hoeing or hand-pulling. New plants can grow from broken pieces of mouse-ear rootstock, however, so make sure you remove the entire plant when using either method.
A healthy lawn can compete against mouse-ear chickweed if the grass is not mowed too short or too frequently. Watering the lawn deeply and infrequently will encourage the grass to grow deeper roots, which also can help it compete against chickweed. Water once every seven to ten days, and apply enough water so that it soaks six to eight inches into the ground.
If you choose to remove chickweed, do it before the weed has time to go to seed, thereby preventing future problems in your garden area.
Morning Glory:
A common annual that reproduces by seeds and by deep, horizontal roots. This flowering vine sprouts in late spring and can be seen throughout the summer. This plant can become a big problem in warm weather. Try to dig out this weed before it flowers.
Quackgrass:
A creeping, persistent perennial that reproduces by seeds. Its long, jointed, straw-colored rhizomes form a heavy mat in soil, from which new shoots may also appear. Try to dig out this weed as soon as you see it in your garden.
Lamb’s Quarters:
A fast-growing annual that reproduces by seeds. This summer weed rapidly removes moisture from soil, so remove it as soon as possible. Cultivate this weed out of your garden using a sharp hoe.
Purslane:
An annual that reproduces by tiny black seeds and stem fragments. This weed appears in late spring or early summer and likes warm weather and rich, fertile soil. Pull or cultivate out this weed as soon as you see it and destroy the plant; this weed can live in your soil for years.
Shepherd’s Purse:
A flowering annual that reproduces by seeds. It likes cool weather and its yellowish-brown seeds are long-lived in the ground. Try to pull out this weed before it seeds.
Buckhorn Plantain:
A hardy perennial that reproduces by seeds. This narrow-leaved weed invades meadows, pastures, and lawns. This weed appears in any season. Hand weed this plant and destroy it to remove it from your garden.
Assessment
- Mention 4 economic importance of weeds
- Some weeds are useful to farmers, explain
- Mention 4 characteristics of weeds
Crop Improvement
WEEK 3 & 4
Agricultural Science. S.S.S 2 Third Term
TOPIC: Crop Improvement
Introduction
This is defined as the science that deals with the development of new crop varieties with superior quality and quantity. In other words, Crop improvement refers to the genetic alteration of plants to satisfy human needs. In prehistory, human forebears in various parts of the world brought into cultivation a few hundred species from the hundreds of thousands available. It also refers to the ways of developing and breeding crop varieties which are better than the existing varieties in a number of characters.
Aims of Crop Improvement
The plant breeders involved in improving our crops usually have certain aims in mind when doing their work. The aims are
- To increase crop yield
- To increase the quality of farm produce – by improving taste, colour, size, nutritive value and fibre content of the crops
- To adapt to climatic conditions – to produce crops that can withstand draught, adverse weather conditions and by adjusting the growth cycle
- To improve the nutritional value of the produce – e.g high protein, mineral and vitamin levels in crops
- To breed crops with early maturity – this can allow for the production of that crop many times a year
- To increase resistance to pests and diseases
- To meet the needs of growers – Many growers have different specification of produce. e.g some farmers like short rice while other want long rice grain.
- To meet the needs of consumers – Consumers want produce with improved quality.
Processes of Crop Improvement
- Introduction – This involves the importation or introduction of some varieties of crops with desirable characteristics into some areas where they have not existed before. It involves the movement of crops from its origin to another region where it can adapt. Crops with desired qualities are identified and used for this purpose.
Advantages of Introduction
a. It helps in bringing new varieties of crops to a new area
b. It may enhance greater productivity
c. Absence of pests and diseases
d. It helps to upgrade the quality of local variety of produce
e. It may perform better if there is a better soil condition
Disadvantages
a. Possibility of introducing new crop disease
b. The new crop may not be able to adapt to the weather and soil condition of the area.
c. It may also introduce new pest - Selection – This involves the artificial picking of crops with desirable characteristics which are most favoured by the environment. This is the ability to choose certain crops which possess artificial characteristics which are easily recognisable when you see them.
Methods of Selection
– Mass selection – Crops selected on the basis of performance or merit
– Pure Line selection – Only one crop with good characteristics is selected.
– Pedigree selection – Crops are selected on the basis of the performance of their ancestors
– Progeny selection – Crops are selected on the basis of the performance of their offspring
Advantages of Selection
a. It ensures the best naturally available crop is grown
b. It reduces the spread of diseases
c. Crops with desired qualities are selected
d. Seeds of best crops are multiplied for distribution
Disadvantages of Selection
a. Tedious and time consuming
b. Very expensive
c. Requires expertise
d. Elimination of some desirable traits of the parent stock - Breeding or Hybridization – This is the process by which offspring is produced through crossing of two different plant varieties of the same species. In other words, it refers to the development of plants by combining inherited qualities of one plant with that of another through the fertilizaton of male and female gametes.
Types of Breeding
– In-breeding – Pollination and fertilization of closely related crop plants in order to retain certain desirable traits.
– Pure line – Plant with desirable traits is self pollinated and fertilized continuously with closely related species for many generations so that the desirable qualities it possesses do not change from generation to generation.
– Cross breeding – This is the pollination and fertilization of unrelated crop plants belonging to different breed. this results in the production of an offspring which is superior to the average performance of the parents. Such a plant is called Hybrid Vigour.
Advantages of Breeding
a. Produces superior off-springs (cross breeding)
b. Progeny grows more rapidly (cross breeding)
c. Production of pure line (in-breeding)
d. Offspring can withstand variation in environment (cross breeding)
Disadvantages of Breeding
a. Drop in production or yield of crops in terms of quantity (in-breeding)
b. Poor or low resistance to disease attack (in-breeding)
Methods of Improving Crop productivity
- Crop Improvement Methods
- Proper timing of planting
- Adoption of better cultivation methods
- Use of manures and fertilizers
- Control of Pests and diseases
- Use of pest and disease resistant varieties
- Use of good crop varieties
Assessment
- What are the aims of crop improvement
- Mention 4 ways in which one can improve crop productivity
Basic Economic Principle
WEEK 5
Agricultural Science. S.S.S 2 Third Term
TOPIC : Basic Economic Principle
Content
- Principles of Demand and Supply
- Effect of demand and supply on Agricultural Returns
- Law of Diminishing Returns
Introduction
Economic Principles – The basic concept of economics are wants, scarcity, scale of preference, choice and opportunity cost.
Definitions
Want – Want can be defined as unsatiable desire or need by human beings to own goods or services that give satisfaction. The basic needs of man include food, shelter and clothing. Human needs are many. They include tangible goods like houses, cars, chairs, television sets, radios while others are in form of services e.g. tailoring, carpentry, medical. Human wants or needs are many and are usually described as insatiable.
Needs are based on physiological, personal, or socio-economic requirements necessary for you to function and live. Transportation is a need for the modern, urban person because work, food, and other necessities of daily life are too far from where he lives.
Wants, on the other hand, are a means to fulfilling our needs. You may take bike to work, use public transportation, or drive your own vehicle. While any of the choices will work, you want a car to fulfill your need for transportation.
Scarcity – This is defined as the limited supply of resources which are used for the satisfaction of unlimited wants. Scarcity is the inability of human beings to provide themselves with all the things they desire or want. These resources are scarce relative to their demand. E.g A man who wants to buy a house and a car and he has only 1 million which is the cost of the house alone. 1 million is your resources but it is not sufficient to buy all you need. Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of having seemingly unlimited human wants in a world of limited resources. It states that society has insufficient productive resources to fulfill all human wants and needs.
Ends are unlimited while means are limited. Scarcity means resources are limited in relation to the ends.
Scale of Preference – This is defined as the list of unsatisfied wants arranged in order of their relative importance. In the scale of preference, the most pressing want comes first and the least pressing is last. Choice arises because human wants are unlimited or numerous while resources for satisfying them are limited or scarce.
Emmanuel’s Scale of Preference
- Mobile Phone – N18000
- Shoe – N15000
- Shirt – N8500
- Fan – N7500
- Stove – N580o
Emmanuel has only N35000. He can only purchase a mobile phone and a pair of shoe because his resources is limited and his wants are unlimited.
Importance of Scale of Preference
- Ranking of needs – The most importnat need stays atop the scale.
- Financial Prudence – Assists in managing your finance
- Identification of highest priority
- Efficient utilisation of limited resources
- Optimum allocation of resources
Choice – This is the systn of selecting one out of a numbe of alternatives. Choice arises as a result of numerous human wants and scarcity of resources
Opportunity cost – This is an expression in terms of forgone alternatives. It is the satisfaction of one’s want at the expense of another want. It refers to what is left unsatisfied in order to satisfy another more pressing need.
Importance of Opportunity cost
To individuals
- Wise Choice – It enables individuals to make a wise choice
- Efficient use of scarce resources
To firms
- Rational decision
- Techniques of production
To Government
- Preparation of Budget
- Decision making process
Law of Diminishing Returns
The law of diminishing return states that as successive amounts of a variable factor are applied to one or more fixed factors, output might increase a lot at first but there comes a point at which the use of an additional amount of the variable factor will add less to the output than the preceeding amount. In other words, its states that as more and more units of a variable factor of a production are added to a fixed factor, after a certain point, the marginal product diminishes or declines.
Importance of diminishing returns in Agriculture
- It helps the entrepreneur to determine the best proportion to combine the factors of production
- It enables him to determine the wages he will pay his workers
- It enables him to know when to stop adding more input ot the variable factor to the fixed factor
- It enables him to minimise cost and avoid wastage
Demand
This can be defined as the quantity of goods a consumer is willing and ready to buy at a given price over a given period of time. The ability and willingness to buy specific quantities of goods or services at alternative prices over a given period of time.
Law of Demand
This states that the higher the price, the lower the quantity of demand and the lower the price, the higher the quantity of demand.
All things being equal, this law holds under the following assumptions
- That there will be no change in taste and preference of the consumer
- That the consumer’s income remains constant
- That the habits of the consumer remains unchanged
- That there is no change in product quality
- No close substitute to the commodity
Factors affecting Demand
- Change in Price – higher price affects demand
- Price of other commodities – applies to commodities with close substitute
- Income of consumer – Higher income leads to higher demand
- Changes in consumer taste – Once consumer taste changes, the demand for that product falls
- Festivals – People demand for more of a particular commodity during festivals
- Population – Increase in population will lead to increase in demand
Supply
This can be defined as the quantity of goods which a producer is willing and ready to offer for sale at a given price over a given period of time. The quantity of commodity offered for sale in the market is known as effective supply.
Law of Supply
The law of supply states that the higher the price, the higher the quantity of produce that will be supplied or the lower the price, the lower the quantity of produce that will be offered for sale.
Factors affecting Supply
- Price – The higher the price of a commodity, the higher the quantity supplied and vice versa
- Level of technology – Improved techniques reduce cost per unit and increases production
- Weather – Favourable weather increases production
- Government Policy – Subsidy to farmers
- Taxation – Higher taxation price on materials can reduce production
- Number of Producers – More producers will increase quantity supplied
- Natural Disasters – will have a negative effect on supply
- Cost of Production – Increased cost will reduce quantity supplied
Implication of Demand and Supply on Agricultural Production
- When demand of agricultural product is lower than supply, price for such commodity will fall and farmers will be discouraged
- When demand exceeds supply, price tend to rise and consumers will demand for more products and farmers will be stimulated to produce more.
- Higher supply of agricultural products may lead to reduction in price and demand
- High cost of yam may lead to low demand of yam and high demand of Garri which is a close substitute
- High cost of production may lead to low supply and high prices of products
- Increase in number of farmers will lead to increased supply and reduction in prices and vice versa
- Supply will be high when the weather condition is favourable for production
- High cost and lack of farm input may lead to low supply.
Assessment
- Define the following terms
– Wants
– Needs
– Scale of preference
– Scarcity - How does demand and supply affect agricultural production
- Under what assumptions does the law of demand hold?
- State the Law of Supply
Farm Records
Week 6
Agricultural Science SS2 Third term
Topic: Farm Records
Content
- Farm Records
- Importance of Farm Records
Farm Records
Farm records are written documents showing major activities going on in the farming business. This is to enable a farmer manage his farm well and also have records for future use.
Importance of Farm Accounts and Records
- Changes in Prices of Produce – It enables the farmer to monitor changes in prices of farm produce
- Determination of annual tax – Farm records make it possible to determine accurate tax to be paid
- Data for planning and budgeting – Farm records help to provide data for planning
- Management Decisions – Records help you to make the right decisions as regards the farm business
- Detection of Fraudulent Acts – Through monitoring of farm records, the farmer is able to detect any fraudulent act.
- For procurement of loans – Good farm records can be used by the farmer to secure loan from the bank
- Farm Auditing – Accurate records are needed for auditing
- Determination of Actual Worth of the Farm – Farm records help you to know the worth of your farm in monetary terms
- Financial Position- Through farm accounts, you can know the financial position of your farm
Types of Farm Records
- Cash book receipts and payment records
Cash book – Book of financial transactions (income and expenses)
Receipts and payments – There are two types ( cheque and cash) and they are recorded in the cash book
Receipts are recorded on the left side while payments are recorded on the right side
Cash book content – Date column, source of income received or expenditure made. - Annual Valuation
Farmers keep statement of the value of stocks at the beginning and end of the year
Every valuation is based on market value or production cost - Farm Diary
Record of daily activities and events of the farm
Reference book to obtain information about the farm
It also shows movement of staff and visitors to the farm, amount of rainfall and losses to thieves. - Farm Inventory
This is the listing of all assets on the farm and their money worth or value. It is a record that gives the full list of assets and liabilities of a farm in both physical and monetary terms. This is carried out at the close of farming season and at the beginning. The information on the inventory shows
– Quantity of item
– Date of Purchase
– Price
– Other useful information
How to take inventory
- Identify the assets and liabilities
- Itemize the above
- Count each of the assets physically
- Assign monetary value to each asset
Importance of Inventory record
- Helps in periodic checking of the movement of farm tools and equipment
- Assists in Farm evaluation, farm planning and budgeting
- Helps in assessment of net worth of farm
- Provides data for preparation of balance sheet
- Helps in identifying damaged tools
5. Farm Budget
- This is the Estimated future income and expenditure of farm operation
- Budgeting technique helps farmer to select the most profitable plan
- Helps to check profitability of any economic change in farm plan
6. Yield or Production record
- It shows the yield of crops cultivated on the farm
- It shows the produce from the livestock or poultry
- It may help in variety selection
7. Payroll or Labour Record
- Shows the amount and types of labour hired or employed to work on the farm
- Shows the rates and wages paid
- Helps in profit and loss account
8. Farm Input Utilization Record
- It shows the input acquired and utilised during the period.
- It shows the levels of input application
- It is used in combination with output record to determine resource productivity.
9. Profit and Loss Account – This type of account is prepared at the end of a business period usually a year by the farmer for the purpose of knowing whether his business is making profit or loss. Expenses are recorded on the left side (debit) while receipts or sales are recorded on the right side (credit).
| Debit Particulars N : K | Credit Particulars N : K |
| 1. Cost of feed 1000:00 | 2. Sales of eggs 15000:00 |
| 3. Cost of drugs 1200:00 | 4. Eggs for domestic use 1500:00 |
| 5. Loss due to mortality 800:00 | 6. Value of stock left 8000:00 |
| 7. Farm wages 8500:00 | 8. Sales of spent layers 5500:00 |
| 9. Transportation 1500:00 | |
| 10. Depreciation 4500:00 | |
| 11. Electricity bill 5000:00 Total expenditure 22500:00 12. Net Profit 7500:00 Grand total 30,000:00 | Grand total 30,000:00 |
ASSESSMENT
- What are Farm records?
- List 6 importance of farm records
- List and explain 6 types of farm records.
SS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Farm Accounts
Week 7 & 8
Agricultural Science SS2 Third Term
Topic: Farm Accounts
Contents –
- Farm Accounts
- Types and Importance of Farm Accounts
Farm Accounts
Farm Accounts are statements of money paid out or received for goods and services used in farming business. Money is received due to sales of farm produce or loans from other sources while money is paid out for purchases of farm produce or settlement of debts. At the end of a given period, the farmer should be able to know whether the business is yielding profits or losses.
Types of Farm Accounts
- Sales Account – This shows the details of produce sold which also includes – type of produce, quantity sold, amount paid by customer, date sold and customer’s information. Also known as sales and receipt account.
- Purchase Account – This shows the details of all items purchased for use on the farm. It includes name of input, date purchased, number of input or quantity and cost of input.
- Farm Valuation – Farm valuation is carried out to get the time value of the farm. It is carried out at the beginning and end of the accounting or production period.Valuation of the farm at the beginning is known as Opening Valuation while at the end of the production year is known as Closing Valuation.
Importance of Farm Valuation
- A good valuation will determine the disposable value of the farm when the need arises
- useful for tax assessment
- Used to prepare balance sheet
4. Cash Analysis Account – This shows the details of income and expenditure of a farm over a given period of time. Sales and receipts are entered on the left hand while purchases and receipts are entered on the right hand. Total received is recorded at the bottom of the left hand and Total paid is recorded at the bottom of the right hand.
Importance of Cash Analysis Account
- Helps in planning of farm activities
- Useful in preparing balance sheet
- Used in the preparation of profit and loss account
5. Farm Income Statement – It comprises all farm receipts and expenses carried out on the farm over a specific period of time. It gives an accurate profitability of the farm.
Income statement for Green Praise Farms for the Month of June, 2017
Expenses N : K Receipts N : K
Feeds 2,000.00 Eggs 5,000.00
Drugs 400.00 Culled Layers 3,000.00
Water 500.00 Manure 2,500.00
Labour 1,100.00
Fuel 1,500.00
Net Income 5,000.00
10,500.00 10,500.00
6. Balance Sheet – The balance sheet shows the capital or financial position of the farm at the end of the accounting period usually a year. List of assets is on the right side while list of liability is on the left hand side.
Importance of Balance Sheet
- Balance sheet assists in future planning processes
- Assists in the assessment of management performance
Balance Sheet for Green Praise Farms as at December 31st, 2016
| Liability | N K | Assets | N K |
| Loan from Agric Bank | 23,000.00 | Land | 25,000.00 |
| Loan from Commercial bank | 15,000.00 | Implements | 10,000.00 |
| Loan from money lenders | 22,000.00 | Farm building | 13,000.00 |
| Loan from cooperatives Total Net capital/Net worth or owner’s equity | 10,000.00 70,000 10,000.00 80,000.00 | Livestock Feed Cash in bank | 8,000.00 10,000.00 14,000.00 80,000.00 |
7. Profit and Loss Account – This type of account is prepared at the end of a business period usually a year by the farmer for the purpose of knowing whether his business is making profit or loss.
Expenses are recorded on the left side (debit) while receipts or sales are recorded on the right side (credit).
Importance of Profit and Loss Account
- Helps to detect if the farm is making profit or loss
- Aids future planning of the farm for better results
- Helps to determine overall performance of the farm at the end of the business year.
Profit and Loss Account of Green Praise Farm as at December 31st, 2016
| Debit Particulars N : K | Credit Particulars N : K |
| 1. Cost of feed 1000:00 | 2. Sales of eggs 15000:00 |
| 3. Cost of drugs 1200:00 | 4. Eggs for domestic use 1500:00 |
| 5. Loss due to mortality 800:00 | 6. Value of stock left 8000:00 |
| 7. Farm wages 8500:00 | 8. Sales of spent layers 5500:00 |
| 9. Transportation 1500:00 | |
| 10. Depreciation 4500:00 | |
| 11. Electricity bill 5000:00 Total expenditure 22500:00 12. Net Profit 7500:00 Grand total 30,000:00 | Grand total 30,000:00 |
Accounting Terms
Farm Assets – A farm asset is anything of value in the possession of a farm business. In other words, assets are resources possessed by a farmer which enables him to produce. An asset is an economic resource. Anything tangible or intangible that can be owned or controlled to produce value and that is held to have positive economic value is considered an asset. An asset is a resource with economic value that an individual, corporation or country owns or controls with the expectation that it will provide future benefit. Assets are reported on a company’s balance sheet, and they are bought or created to increase the value of a firm or benefit the firm’s operations.
Two types of assets
- Fixed assets – These are assets which are not used up during production. Examples are landed property, farm buildings, motor vehicles, tools and implements, incubator and milking machines.
- Current assets – These are assets which are used up during the process of production e.g water, feed, drugs, chemicals, fertilizers, seeds and cash in bank.
- Fixed Cost – This is the component of the total cost of production which does not vary with the level of production. Examples – cost of structures (silo, barns), cost of equipment and cost of machinery.
- Variable Cost – This is the other component of total cost which varies directly with the level of production. examples – wages, salaries, cost of feed, cost of seeds, cost of fertilizers, cost of agro-chemicals.
Liabilities – This is the money owed to external persons or corporate bodies. e.e loans from banks. Liabilities are properties of other people which the bank owes. A liability is a company’s financial debt or obligations that arise during the course of its business operations. Liabilities are settled over time through the transfer of economic benefits including money, goods or services. Amounts owed to lenders and suppliers. Liabilities often have the word “payable” in the account title.
- Current or Short term Liabilities – These are debts that must be paid back within one accounting year e.g creditor’s loan and accrued expenses
- Long term Liabilities – These are debts which cannot be paid back within one accounting year e.g Loans from banks
Net capital, Net worth or Owner’s equity – This is the total amount of money supplied by the owner of the farm business.
Assets – Liability = Owner’s equity or Capital
Liquidity – This is the ability of the farm business to cover the liquidation of the asset
Solvency – This is the ability of the farm business to cover the liquidation of the asset
Appreciation – This refers to increase in value or worth of an asset as the asset is being used over time. Examples of assets that can appreciate are, growing young animals, cash crops and land. Appreciation is an increase in the value of an asset over time. The increase can occur for a number of reasons, including increased demand or weakening supply, or as a result of changes in inflation or interest rates. This is the opposite of depreciation, which is a decrease over time.
Depreciation – This refers to the loss or reduction in the value or worth of an asset as the asset is being used over time. In other words, depreciation is the loss in value of capital asset as a result of wear and tear over a period of time. Examples are farm buildings, machineries, motor vehicles, tools etc Depreciation is an accounting method of allocating the cost of a tangible asset over its useful life. It is the permanent and continuing diminution in the quality, quantity or value of an asset.
Salvage Value – This is the amount at which an asset is sold off when it is no longer economical to keep or when the cost of maintenance of the asset is too high. SV can be referred to as the amount of money received from the disposal of a fixed asset after its normal useful life. An asset can depreciate to the extent that it attracts little value. When there is no value on an asset, it is called obsolete and therefore sold off as scrap.
Useful life of an asset – This means the number of years a piece of farm equipment can effectively serve a farmer.
Calculation of Depreciation
Methods
- Straight Line Method or Fixed Installment Method
- Annual revaluation Method
- Unit of Production or Output method
- Declining balance method
- Sum of the years digit method
Formulae for calculation
- Total depreciation = Cost price of Asset – Salvage value of the Asset
- Annual Depreciation =
Cost price – Salvage Value
No of useful life
Example – Calculate the salvage value, total depreciation, annual depreciation and appreciation of an asset. A plough which was purchased in 1994 at the cost of 48,000,000 and sold off at 30,000,000 in 2009.
Solution
Cost Price = N48,000,000
Salvage Value = N30,000,000 (Price at which plough was sold after useful years)
Life span or useful life = 2009 – 1994 = 15years
Total depreciation = Cost price – Salvage Value = N48,000,000 – N30,000,000 = N18,000,000
Annual depreciation = Total depreciation = N18,000,000 = N1,200,000
Life Span 15
Appreciation – The plough suffered a loss or reduction so no appreciation.
Assessment
- What is the importance of Farm Valuation Account?
- Define the following terms
– Asset
– Liquidity
– Depreciation
– Salvage Value
– Appreciation - What is the importance of profit and loss account to a farmer?
Animal Nutrition
Week 9
Agricultural Science SS2 Third term
Topic: Animal Nutrition (I)
Contents
- Animal Nutrition
- Classification of Life Stock Feed
- Types of Ration
Animal Nutrition
Nutrition can be defined as the process by which an organism obtains food which is used to provide energy and materials for its life sustaining.
Animal Nutrition – The food given to farm animals is generally known as livestock feed or simply feed. Farm animals need feed for growth, repair of worn out tissues energy e.t.c. Animal nutrition focuses on the dietary needs of domesticated animals, primarily those in agriculture and food production. There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fibre, minerals, protein, vitamin, and water.
Effects of Food Shortage in Animal Production
- Low birth weight and loss of weight
- Slow growth of livestock
- Increased susceptibility to death
- High death rate in animals
- Poor milk, meat and egg production is recorded which leads to reduction in livestock production
- Poor reproduction or delayed puberty or late maturity
- Drought animals become weak
Classification of Livestock Feed
Animal feeds are grouped into four main categories. These are
- Carbohydrate concentrate / Energy feed/Basal Energy Feeds – These are feeds that are high in energy or a starchy food. E.g. maize, cassava
Characteristics
– Crude fibre content less than 18%
– High in carbohydrates and fat
– Low in protein and Fibre
– Highly digestible
– Low in Minerals
- Protein Concentrate – This is a type of feed that is high in protein
Characteristics
– Low in carbohydrates and fat
– Low in fibre and has crude fibre less than 18%
– Highly digestible
– Low in minerals - Mineral/Vitamins Supplement
Characteristics
– Required in small quantity
– They supplement basal and protein concentrate
– They are low in energy, protein and fibre
– High in vitamins and minerals
– They aid resistance to diseases
– They are necessary for growth and development
– They aid food digestion
– They include minerals, vitamins and essential amino acids - Roughages
Characteristics
– Low in digestible carbohydrate and protein
– High in Fibre, crude fibre is 18%
– They have poor or low digestibility
– Pasture lands such as grasses and legumes form roughages
– They exist in different forms such as straw, hay, soilage and silage
Hay – This refers to the aerial part of young and succulent grass or herbage cut and dried for feeding animals. Its nutritive value is higher than straw.
Straw – This refers to the aerial part of grass or harvested crops cut and stored for future use. Straw is difficult to digest because the plants are cut after the crops have been harvested. Wet roughages are referred to as silage and soilage.
- Silage – This refers to the preservation of green and succulent forage under anaerobic conditions.
Preparation of silage
Dig a large pit according to your requirements
2. Cut pasture species at the right stage of maturity before flowering
3. Chop pasture in pieces
4. Line the inside of pit with palm fronds or banana leaves
5. Load the chopped and mixed pasture into pit
6. Compress each layer by rolling heavy substances over it
7. Sprinkle dilute mineral acid after each layer
8. Compress the heap after loading all layers
9. Spread polyethene sheet or banana leaves on the heap
10. Heap soil on the sheet and leave to ferment for 2 – 4 weeks. - Soilage – This refers to process of cutting fresh and succulent grasses and legumes from the field and taking them to animals in their pens. They have high moisture contents and high nutrients. Soilage is also referred to as zero grazing.
Food Nutrients of Livestock
There are six classes of nutrients
- Carbohydrate – made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
* Sources – Maize, guinea corn, grasses, wheat, potatoes, plantain, millet, rice, yam, cocoyam, plantain, hay, silage, molasses, forage grasses and grains
* Functions – They provide energy to farm animals for growth, reproduction, milk production and other activities - Protein – Composed of Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sometimes Sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus.
* Sources – Animal sources: fish meal, blood meal, meat meal, feather meal, milk powder (skimmed), eggs, cholesterol, termite, insects, earthworms. Plant sources: groundnut cake, soya beans, palm kernel, seed meal, cashew, sun flower.
* Functions :
– Essential for growth of young ones
– Repair of worn our tissues
– Useful in formation of gametes
– Milk, egg and meat production in livestock depends on protein level
– Used in formation of digestive juices and production of antibodies to combat foreign substances
– Necessary for flesh build-up
– They are required for the production of enzymes and hormones - Fats and Oil – They are composed of carbohydrate, hydrogen and oxygen. Sources are palm oil, ground nut cake, cotton seed cake, milk, lard and tallow.
* Functions
– Gives more energy than carbohydrate
– Supplies essential fatty acids and fat build up
– Provide fat soluble vitamins
– Maintenance of body temperature
– Prevents dustiness of feed - Minerals – They are of 2 types. The macro (which are required in large quantity such as calcium, magnesium, Sulphur, potassium, phosphorus, sodium) and micro/ trace elements (which are require in small quantity such as iodine, cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc and fluorine). Sources are bone meal, oyster shell, limestone and salt licks.
* Functions
– Required in the body for good health and productivity
– Constituent of milk, egg and meat
– regulates blood clotting and prevents diseases
– Promote body growth
– Helps in the formulation of hormones - Vitamins – they are organic substances require by animals for proper growth and development of the body. Two types Fat soluble – Vitamins A, B, E and K. Water soluble – Vitamins B and C.
* Functions
– Aids reproduction and blood clotting processes
– Acts as a coenzyme in biochemical reactions
– Aids bone and teeth formation
– Proper eye sight
– red blood cell formation - Water – Very important for livestock. Sources are tap, grasses, fresh fodder, rivers, ponds, streams e.t.c
* Functions
– Aids digestion
– For drinking purposes
– Washing and cleaning animals
– Sanitation purposes
– Helps to maintain body turgidity
– A solvent for most nutrients
– Major constituent of blood and body fluids
– Production of saliva
– Pasture irrigation
– Maintenance of Body temperature
Assessment
- Mention 3 sources of the following
a. Protein
b. Carbohydrate
c. Fats and oil
d. Vitamins - Mention the functions of the following
a. Water
b. Vitamins
c. Minerals - What are the characteristics of Roughages
SS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Animal Nutrition (II)
Week 10
Agricultural Science SS2 Third term
Topic: Animal Nutrition (II)
Types of Ration Diet and their Uses
Diet – This is defined as the amount of feed regularly given to or consumed by an animal. It is formulated to meet specific metabolic and physiological functions as regards growth, development, lactation, reproduction and egg laying.
Ration – This is the total supply of feed given to an animal in a 24 hr period. This is the amount of food taken by an animal per day.
Balanced ration – This is the feed containing all essential nutrients in the correct quantity and in adequate proportion for feeding animals.
Factors to be Considered When Deciding the Type of Ration to Feed an Animal
- Purpose for which the animal is kept for
- The class of the animal
- Age of the animal
- Health condition of the animal
- Physiological state of the animal
- Management system
Types of Ration
- Maintenance Ration – This is the type of ration given to farm animals just to maintain the normal functioning of the body system
- Production Ration – This is the type of ration given to farm animals to enable them produce. In other words, production ration supplies nutrient above what is needed for maintenance in order to make animal capable of high production of egg, meat and milk.
Animals that require Production Ration
- Lactating animals – Milk production
- Broilers – Rapid growth
- Weaning animals – Increased growth
- Pregnant animals – Foetus maintenance
- Flushing – To produce more ova before mating
- Fattening animals – Meat production
Ration Formulae
For a ration formulae, the following should be considered
- Physiological state of the animal
- Availability of feed-stuff
- Composition of nutrient
- Taste of the feed
- Cost of feed-stuff
- Age of animal
- Familiarity of feed to animals
Functions of Antibiotics
- They help the body to fight against disease causing micro-organisms
- They improve early growth of poultry, pigs and non-ruminants
- They increase absorption of nutrients from the digestive tract
- They help to heal sores or wounds in animals
Feed Ingredients
- Blood Meal
- Fish Meal
- Dry process (sundry of fish)
- Groundnut cake
- Cotton seed meal
- Bone meal
- Maize or guinea corn
Assessment
- Explain the types of ration
- List 3 functions of antibiotics
- Mention 4 animals that require production ration