• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: PRESERVATION OF FARM PRODUCE FOR MARKETING
• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: STORAGE OF FARM PRODUCE
• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: CROP PLANT DISEASES
• DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA
• JSS2 AGRICULTURE THIRD TERM: EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE
• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: FOREST AND FOREST USES
• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: FARM ANIMAL DISEASES I
• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: FARM ANIMAL DISEASES II
• JSS2 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE THIRD TERM: HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS (MAIZE)

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Preservation of Farm Produce for Marketing

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 9

Topic: Preservation of Farm Produce for Marketing

Introduction

One of the greatest problems facing most Nigerian farmers is how to preserve their farm produce after harvesting. Most of the farm produce whether livestock or crops are perishable.To reduce wastage due to spoilage, farmers employ different methods to preserve their products until they are consumed or sent to market for sale. 

Preservation of farm produce is one of the greatest problems facing farmers in Nigeria. This is so because of the nature of farm produce (livestock or crops) which is their high perish ability. They are highly perishable because of their high moisture content which in turn promotes the activities of micro organisms which bring about spoilage. The needs for preservation of the farm produce are to reduce wastage due to spoilage until such products are consumed or sent to the market for sale. Preservation can be defined as, the process of keeping farm produce from decay and spoilage (by maintaining the quality) until they are consumed or sold.

Principles on which Preservation Methods are Based

1. Reduction of moisture content
2. Temperature manipulations
3. Exclusion of micro organisms

Methods of Preserving Farm Produce

1. Drying – This is the process of removing as much water as possible from the produce to prevent spoilage by micro – organisms. The produce is placed on a tray or mat in the sun for them to dry. Maize grains, pepper, cowpea beans and melon are examples. Also hides and skins and fish are sun dried. Examples of fish which are sun dried are stock fish and cray fish
2. Smoking – A traditional method of preserving fish in Nigeria. This is done by making fire in a mud oven or in a container. Wire gauze is placed on top of the oven and fish to be smoked are placed on top of the wire gauze. To prevent burning, fish is turned frequently during smoking. The smoke particles from the fire help to enhance the flavuor of the produce and inhibit bacterial growth on the surface of the product.
3. Refrigeration/cold storage – The products such as fruits and vegetables are kept at temperature lower than that of the room temperature in refrigerators. The temperature operative in the refrigerators will not allow the spoilage organisms from growing and the products are preserved.
4.  Freezing – products are stored at a temperature below O⁰C. This completely hinders the activities of micro organisms and frozen foods are preserved for a long time. It should be noted that freezing does not kill most micro organisms. Therefore, if frozen food is brought back to warmer temperature, the micro organisms become active again thereby resulting in food spoilage. This method is used for meat. Fish and meat products.
5. Pasteurization – This is the process of subjecting milk to a very high temperature for a brief period of time but long enough to kill all the micro organisms in it. Pasteurized milk is then stored in refrigerator.
6. Salting – this is addition of salt to produce to preserve them. The salt dehydrates the farm produce i.e. absorbs much of the water from the produce thereby preserving them.
7. Canning – a process of storing food products in hygienically sealed containers. The containers are washed and sterilized by heating them in boiling water (at a temperature of 100 0c). The product is then heated to temperature high enough to destroy all micro organisms in it. The containers are then sealed and allowed to cool after their content has been poured into it. Canning is used for preserving fish, meat, fruit juice, milk, groundnut oil etc.
8.  Frying – some products such as fish, eggs, meat as well as flour, can be preserved by frying them in oils. The oil help to protect the surfaces from attack by spoilage organisms and also help to reduce moisture content of the produce thereby preserving the produce.
9. Fermentation – during the process of fermentation, protein is broken down in the presence of high salt concentration by the enzymes in the produce. This method is used for preserving mainly fish and leguminous produce such as soya beans and cowpea.

Specific Preservation Methods for Livestock

Livestock 

• Refrigeration
• Drying
• Salting
• Canning
• Frying

Crop Produce

• Drying
• Milling
• Canning
• Refrigeration

Fish

• Drying 
• Salting
• Smoking
• Canning
• Refrigeration
• Frying

Practice Questions

1. ____ is the process of subjecting milk to a very high temperature for a brief period of time but long enough to kill all the micro organisms in it
2. When salt is applied to farm produce, ____ occurs and  much of the water from the produce is absorbed thereby preserving them.
3. During fermentation process, _____ is broken down in the presence of high salt concentration by the enzymes in the produce.
4. ____ is done by making fire in a mud oven or in a container.
5. ____ is the process of removing as much water as possible from the produce to prevent spoilage by micro – organisms. 
6. In freezing process,  products are stored at a temperature below ___ ^oC

Answers

1. Pasteurization
2. Dehydration
3. Protein
4. Smoking
5. Drying
6. 0 ^oC

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Storage of Farm Produce

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 1 & 2

Topic: Storage of Farm Produce

Introduction

After harvesting, farm products are subject to attack by insect pests and micro-organisms if they are not properly kept. To reduce the incidence of pests and to avoid spoilage, agricultural products are kept in special places either for long or short periods depending on when they are sent to the market or used as input during the next planting season. The process of effectively keeping away pests and microorganisms from harvested agricultural products to avoid spoilage is called storage.

Objectives of Storage

1. To reduce to the barest minimum food spoilage caused by pests and microorganisms so that enough food will be available for consumption all year round.
2. To maintain or preserve the quality of food. Poor quality products will lead to a reduction in the price of such products. 
3. To make food available at places where such food is not produced with good storage facilities, food produced in one locality can be transported to another place.
4. To ensure that some food crops are available through out the year.
5. To preserve planting materials for the next planting season

Methods of Storage

In order to keep farm produce in good condition after harvesting, a number of methods are employed to store the farm produce. The inavailability of good storage facilities to peasant farmers make it difficult for the farmers to  keep large quantities of farm produce during the harvesting period of each cropping season. They are therefore forced to dispose off their produce as fast as the produce is harvested. The following are methods of storage

1. Barns – This is the most common and one of the oldest methods of storing yams and cocoyams. The barn consists of big woods placed horizontally  and small wooden holes placed vertically and close to themselves. The roof maybe covered with grasses or palm fronds. Yam tubers are tied to the vertical pole from the base to the top by means of ropes or they may be stored in heaps.
2. Rhumbus – These are storage structures designed and constructed locally for storing unthreshed grains such as maize, millet, and sorghum in the Northern part of the country. Rhumbus are cylindrical in shape and have their walls made of mud or dry grass and the comical roofs are made of thatch.
3. Cribs – These are storage facilities constructed from local materials and are used for storing maize in the Southern Nigeria. Maize cobs are harvested when they are still wet and stored in the cribs. Cribs maybe rectangulas or cylindrical in shape and are poorly constructed because in most cases cobs are exposed to attack by insects and rodents.
4. Silos – These are storage facilities which are used for storing grains in bulk after shelling, some silos have the capacity for holding over 50 tons of grains. Silo may be rectangular or cylindrical in shape. Most silos are air tight with nitrogen which helps to reduce the amount of oxygen in the containers and consequenty reduces the chances of survival of insects and spoilage by microorganisms.
5. Bagging – Sometimes the movement of grains from one place to another will demnd grains be put in reasonable quantities in bags. The bags are kept in stores or warehouses. The bags are kept in stores or warehouses. This method is called bagging. Such bags are lined with leaves to keep them fresh. The advantage of bagging is that it makes transportation easier.
6. Canning – This is the method by which agricultural products are preserved in airtight containers e.g. fish, meat, fruit juices, milk etc. The containers are first cleaned and sterilized by heating them i boiling water. Then the product is heated to  temperature high enough to destroy all microrganisms.
7. Cold stores – Low temperature do not favour the activities of micro -organisms and storage pesta which cause food spoilage. The refrigerators and freezers are built to store food at a very low temperature to prevent activities of spoilage organisms.

Factors Affecting Storage of Farm Produce

1. Quality of Agricultural Produce – Poor quality products do not store well even if the best method pf storage is used.
2. Temperature – Different products are stored with different temperature range. If a product is stored below or bove the average temperature, ithe quality of the product will deteriorate which may eventually led to spoilage.
3. Mositure content – All agricultural products contain a percentage of moisture which differ in various products. Some products require reduced moisture content before they can store well. e.g. grains. The higher the moisture content of an agricultural product, the more liable it is to attack by the spoilage micr-organisms
4. Relative Humidity – This is defined as the amount of water or moisture in the atmosphere. The amount of water in the environment can affect the storage of farm produce because it determines the types of product to be stored in the enviroment. Environemnt with relatively low humidity will encourage high evaporation of water from the produce to the atmosphere.

Practice Questions

• _____ is used to store maize
• _____ is the method by which agricultural products are preserved in airtight containers
• Barn is used for storing ____
• ____ are storage facilities which are used for storing grains in bulk after shelling
• _____ is built to store food at a very low temperature

Answers

• Crib
• Canning
• Yams, Cocoyams
• Silos
• Freezer, Refrigerator

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Crop Plant Diseases

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 3

Topic: Crop Plant Diseases

Generally disease can be defined as an infection or unfavourable condition caused by living organisms (pathogens) or non-living things expressed in characteristic conditions known as symptoms and harmful to the organism or its parts or it may simply reduce the market value.

Plant Disease

A plant disease may be defined as a departure or deviation of the plant from the normal state of health, presenting marked symptoms or outward visible signs. In other words, disease is an unfavourable condition caused either by the pathogens present within a living organism or by nutritional deficiency. It usually results in physiological and anatomical abnormalities expressed in characteristic symptoms. The harmful effects of  a disease to the plant or to any its parts and products generally result in the reduction of the economic value of the plant.

Causes of Diseases

The primary causes of diseases can be classified into two groups, pathogens and pathological factors.

1. Pathogens – Theses are disease inducing living organisms or agents which pass through a regular cycle of development and reproduction. Examples are – Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi and Nematodes.
2. Physiological Factors – They may be physical, chemical or environmental. Many of them are essential for normal growth of plants, but when they are deficient or present in excess, they cause diseases. These are factors which are essential for normal growth and development of plants. Excess or deficiency may cause diseases. Examples are 
   a – Nutritional deficiency
   b – Heat
   c – Inorganic salts
   d – Water

Classification of Plants disease

The disease spreads through seed, soil, or through wind. Plant disease may be grouped as

1. Seed borne
2. Soil borne
3. Air borne

NAME OF DISEASE	CAUSAL ORGANISM	METHOD OF TRANSMISSION	SYMPTOMS AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE	PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES
Maize Smut	Fungus Ustilago maydis	Airborne Fungus spores deposited on fruits	–          Reduced yield –          Galls on ears, leaves and tarsels which later turn black	–          Destroy diseased plant –          Use resistant varieties –          Seed treatment
Rice Blight	Fungus Piricularia oryzae	Airborne spores on leaves	–          Small longitudinal red spots on leaves which turn grey or brown –          Reduced yield	–          Use clean seeds –          Avoid heavy use of nitrogen fertilization –          Use resistant varieties
Maize rust	Fungus Puccinia polysora	Airborne spores on leaves	–          Red spots on leaves –          Reduced yield –          Death of crop	–          Early planting –          Crop rotation –          Use resistant varieties
Rosette disease of Groundnut	Virus	Piercing and sucking insects transmit disease (Aphid)	–          Yellow leaves with mosaic mottling –          Stunted plant with curled leaves –          Wilting and death of plants	–          Early planting –          Crop rotation –          Use insecticides –          Uproot and burn infected plants
Cassava Mosaic	Virus	–          Through piercing and sucking insect (white fly) –          Infected plant cuttings	–          Mottling of leaves –          Distortion of leaves and stems –          Vein clearing –          Stunted growth –          Yellowish pale areas on leaves	–          Uproot and burn infected plants –          Use resistant varieties –          Use disease free stem cuttings –          Farm sanitation –          Spray with insecticides
Cocoa black pod disease	Fungus Phytophthora palmivora	–          Rain splash –          Insect	–          Brown spots on pod –          Rottening of pods –          Low yield	–          Remove and destroy infected pods –          Regular weeding –          Avoid overcrowding –          Spray with fungicides
Coffee leaf rust	Fungus	–          By wind –          By rain splash	–          Yellow or brown spots on leaves –          Reduction in yield –          Orange powdery mass on leaves –          Dropping of leaves	–          Plant seeds from healthy plants –          Use resistant varieties –          Spray with copper fungicides
Root knot of tomato	Nematode	Nematodes in soil	–          Knotting or galling of roots –          Retarded growth and death of plant –          Reduction in yield	–          Soil sterilization –          Crop rotation –          Use resistant varieties –          Uproot and burn infected crops
Onion twister disease	Fungus	–          Infected soil –          Water splash –          Infected bulb	–          Twisting of leaves –          Grey patches on leaves –          Reduction in yield –          Death of plant	–          Crop rotation –          Use resistant varieties –          Early planting –          Spray with fungicides

Practice Questions

Define Plant Disease

List 4 Physiological factors that causes Diseases

Development of Agriculture in Nigeria

Agricultural Science JSS 2 Third Term

Week 4

Topic: Development of Agriculture in Nigeria

The Historical development of Agriculture

The early man as a hunter,in the quest of securing food, the early man moved from place to place hunting and gathering wild animals and fruits.

Around 1200Bc,the early man discovered that discarded seeds they have eaten grew around were they where gathered from this period, he learns to secure food by planting desirable seed locally. Also he found out that some young animals hunted and taken to their camp mate with the female kinds and produce offspring then he decided to spare some of the heal of their animals and rare them.

Instead of the hoes and machetes made out of sticks and stones and plough drawn by animals and hoes and machete are now constructed with metals and woods,plough are operated manually

Agriculture is based on the cultivation of domesticated plants and the keeping of domestic animals.Domestication,then, is a key social practice that defines agriculture,but agriculture is more than domestication.In the same way, domestication is more than an economic process of managing the reproduction of plants and animals and changing their characteristics through selective breeding.

Agriculture began when man started to exist on earth. The early men lived by gathering wild fruit and hunting wild animals because they are wanderers. The type and quantity available at that time was irregular and uncertain and was subject to the prevailing weather and luck.

They continued with this nomadic life until large population of the families and properties necessitated the building of huts, so they changed from their nomadic way of life to a more settled life.

Agriculture and its practices i.e farming started by accident about 12,000 years ago, when the early men discovered that seed and other propagative parts of remains of their food germinate, grow to maturity and reproduce their kinds, they also discovered that certain animals were friendly, so they began to domesticate them. Moreover crops and animals from different parts spread to other countries by the early missionaries, explorers and traders.

Agriculture has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa’s Sahel, New Guinea, parts of India and several regions of America. Agricultural techniques such as irrigation, crop rotation, the application of fertilizers were developed soon after the Neolithic Revolution but have made significant strides in the past 200 years. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints.

In the past century, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs, and farm subsidies.

The scale below provides an indication of how recent the phenomenon of farming started:

The world was formed ca 4, 600 million years ago.

Eukaryotic life forms: ca. 1,000 million years ago

First hominid life forms 4 million years ago (hunter gatherers)

First human farmers: about 12,000 years ago.

Global Agricultural Evolution: 1650 – 1850 AD

Modern Agricultural Evolution: 1950 – present

The progress of farming in Medieval Europe

Improvements of the plough

Horses replace oxen

New crop rotations

Feeding for the winter

New sources of power

Climate change

Global Agricultural Evolution 1650- 1850

Characterized by:

New rotations with leguminous and root crops

Scientific method employed in agricultural research

Use of fossil fuels, increased yields and labour productivity

Invention of mechanized farm equipment

Beginning of food-processing industries

Transfer of crops and livestock from lands of origin as part of the era of European exploration

Summary of Agricultural Development

1. History indicates that the early men were hunters and fruit gatherers during the Stone Age. The ruminants of these fruits that were thrown away later germinated. The early men later began to plant some of the fruits and that was how agriculture started. With an increase in population, fruits later became scarce and men had to walk long distance away from their huts to get food or fruits. Therefore the early men made the first attempt of planting crops and domestication of animal to be assured of what to eat.
2. The early men became subsistence farmers and their first farming practice was shifting cultivation.
3. The practice of shifting cultivation gradually gave way to land rotation or bush fallowing. This was as a result of population pressure.
4. In the later years, due to decline in soil fertility and increase in population, farmers then employed crop relation practices. The method helped in boosting agricultural production and maintained soil fertility.
5. Lastly, commercial farming evolved. This led to production of farm produce on a large scale, and machines were used to carry out various agricultural activities. The agricultural systems that were employed ensured the use of land more intensively and scientifically. It is worthy to note that improvement on agriculture has been achieved through the help of agricultural extension services and education in which the roles of science and technology in mechanizing farm
   operations are substantive.

Agriculture has passed through some development stages like every other sector of the economy.

In Nigeria

The colonial masters (British) forced the peasant farmers to engage in cash production such as groundnuts, cocoa,palm produce, cotton etc.The exchange cash crops with exotic goods like radio,cars,bicycles etc.This is helped to improve the living standard of Nigerians.

The government developed agriculture by the following way

• Establishment of research station
• Establishment of experimental farms
• Establishment of agricultural department in Government organizations

Development in modern times

In modern development time Agriculture was abandoned because of oil boom.The government took bold steps to re-emphasize agriculture and reduce importation of food.This was done in the following ways

• Operation Feed the Nation in (OFN) 1976 by gen Olusegun Obasanjo to increase food production between 1976 and 1979

Objectives

1. To facilitate Agricultural development in all parts of the country
2. To Popularize Agriculture
3. To provide food for all Nigerians
4. To increase food production

• Green Revolution :Launched by Shehu Shagari in 1979 and 1983 by the Federal Government

Objectives

1. To produce cash crops for export purposes
2. To produce abundant food crops for local consumption
3. To encourager large scale farming

• National Agricultural Insurance Scheme: The programme was also set up by the federal Government of Nigeria.

Objectives

1. To provide security against risks, uncertainties and hazards in Agriculture for farmers

• Agricultural Development Programme (ADP): This project started in 1975.

Objectives

• To develop small scale ago-based industries
• To provide rural infrastructures that would facilitate food production
• To construct infrastructures, such as feeder roads and earth dams
• To bring Agricultural services closer to the farmers in rural area

The Role of Science and Technology

Science and Technology has played an important role in the development of agriculture in many countries. These roles are:

1. Implements and Machinery – Science and technology has aided the development of implements and machineries such as tractor, harrower, milking machines, seed planters, shellers, planters ro replace crude tools such as hoe, cutlass, rake and shovel. These implements help farm operations to be easier and faster.
2. Pests and Disease control – Through the aid of Science and Technology, chemicals like insecticides, pesticides, avicides, fungicides, nematicides and fumigants have been developed to combat against problems caused by pestes and othr disease causing pathogens such as bacteria, virus et.c
3. Animal and Pland Breeding – Various breeds of animals and varieties of plants have been developed through the application of genetics and cross breeding. As a result of these, plants with exceptional characters are now developed. Plants and animals now exhibit early maturity, high yield resistance to pest and diseases and other traits specifically required by the farmer.
4. Animal Nutrition – Feeds have been formulated to meet the nutritional demands of animals inorder to enhance rapid growth and maturity.
5. Transport Network –  The transport network has been developed through the construction of roads, railways, waterways, ship and airways. All these transportation channels have aided the movement of farm produce from rural to urban areas at a great speed including exportation.
6. Processing Machines – Science has helped to develop special machines like incubators, milking machines, grinders, millers, shellers which have made the processing of food easier and faster within a short period.
7. Weather and Climate – With the help of Science and Technology, Farmers have been able to understand the weather and climatic condition of their area, and by so doing, helps them to understand the type of crop to be grown at a particular season in a particular area.
8. Development of Fertilizer – The development and application of fertilizers have helped to increase crop yields. Through the help of science and technology, farmers have been able to know and determine soil fertility level before planting. They are also able to determine nutrient deficiencies, organic matter content, water holding capacity e.t.c and the type of crop that can do well on a paticular soil
9. Farm Building and Structure – Technology has helped the farmer in designing and constructing farm houses, farm structures like poultry houses, pig pens and cattle pens for livestock animals. Farm storage structures like barns and silos are equally built.
10. Development of Irrigation Practices – Science and Technology has also helped to develop irrigation practices in which water is applied to the soil artificially, especially during the dry season.
11. Provision of Storage Facilites – Science and Technology has also develop storage failities for the preservation of harvested products. e.g. Silos
12. Development of Farm Management System – Improved farm management systems have also been developed with the aid of science and technology e.g crop rotation and mixed farming.

Practice Question

List and explain 5 roles of science and technology to Agriculture

JSS2 Agriculture Third Term: Employment Opportunities in Agriculture

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 5

Topic: Employment Opportunities in Agriculture

One of the problems facing most young people is that of choosing a career. It is generally believed by most people especially in the developing countries that agriculture simply means farming. Agricultural science is one of the subject which prepares an individual to earn living either on a regular paid job or through self employment.

Steps in Choosing a Career in Agriculture

1. The nature of the occupation
2. The necessary qualities, interests and aptitudes needed for success in the occupation
3. Education and training required
4. The opportunities for securing employment
5. Job satisfaction
6. Financial reward
7. Benefits of such career in the society

Field of Study in Agriculture

Animal Science

• Animal production and management
• Animal nutrition
• Animal health and veterinary
• Animal physiology
• Animal breeding and genetics
• Feed composition and utilization
• Forage production and management

Crop Science

• Crop production
• Crop breeding
• Crop protection
• Weed science
• Seed production
• Horticulture
• Crop physiology and nutrition

Soil Science

• Soil physics
• Soil chemistry
• Soil testing
• Soil microbiology
• Soil survey and classification
• Farm surveying and design
• Pedology

Agricultural engineering

• Tractor repairs and maintenance
• Farm mechanization
• Engineering management
• Equipment servicing
• Wood products engineering

Agricultural economics and extension

• Agricultural policy and planning
• Agricultural business and financial management
• Agricultural marketing
• Agricultural finance and accounting
• Agricultural insurance and risk
• Agricultural extension and rural sociology

Forestry and Wild Life

• Forest biology
• Forest biometrics
• Forest economics and management
• Wood science

Fishery

• Fisheries management
• Fish processing and preservation
• Fish marketing

Agricultural education

• Agricultural research
• Curriculum evaluation

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Forest and Forest Uses

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 6

Topic: Forest and Forest Uses

Forest

A forest can be defined as an area of land set aside for the production of timber and other forest  products. It consists of a group of trees and community of many other living organisms including animals. Forest can be defined as a large area of land covered with trees and brushes, either growing wild or planted for some purposes. A forest is a large area dominated by trees. The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that buffer the earth and support a myriad of life forms. The trees help create a special environment which, in turn, affects the kinds of animals and plants that can exist in the forest. Trees are an important component of the environment. They clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat at night, and act as excellent sound absorbers.

The branch of study whic deals with the application of scientific knowledge, skills and tecniques to the prduction and management of timber and other forest products for the benefit of mankind is known as forestry. 

Forestry  is the art of planting, tending and managing forests, including the utilisation of their products, silviculture is the the study of forest trees and other related trees. Managing forests sustainably means increasing their benefits, including timber and food, to meet society’s needs in a way that conserves and maintains forest ecosystems for the benefit of present and future generations.

Types of Forest

Tropical forests (rainforests but also others) occur near the equator and are the most ecologically rich of all forest types. They regenerate very rapidly but they are the most threatened forests, primarily by logging (reforestation is rare but it has been successfully achieved in some places) and clearance for agriculture (which is often permanent and leads to soil erosion). 

They are characterized by 25-35 m tall trees with a multi-layered and continuous canopy, a highly diverse flora, and a fauna including numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and insects. 

There are four tropical forest types: evergreen rainforest, seasonal rainforest, semi-evergreen forest and moist/dry deciduous forest. 

Temperate forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Regeneration is slower because the growing season is short. Their total area has not changed much in recent years but plantations have steadily replaced old-growth forests. 

Temperatures vary from –30°C to 30°C and precipitation (75-150cm) is evenly distributed throughout the year. The soil is fertile and the canopy moderately dense. There are some 3-4 species of flora per square kilometer and fauna is represented by squirrels, rabbits, birds and deer among others. 

There are five temperate forest types: moist conifer forest, dry conifer forest, Mediterranean forest, temperate coniferous and temperate broad-leaved rainforest. 

Boreal forests, or taiga, represent the largest terrestrial biome. They are found in areas with shorter, warm summers and long winters. Hence the growing season is very short, and regeneration occurs slowly. There are boreal forests in Europe, Asia, Siberia, and North America. Because of the cold climates, plant life in the boreal forest is sturdy, consisting mainly of evergreens and other resilient vegetation. The forest canopy is so dense that little light reaches the forest floor. Annual precipitations (mostly snow) range from 40 to 100 cm. The soil is nutrient-poor and acidic. Flora is mostly cold-tolerant evergreen conifer and fauna includes woodpeckers, bear, lynx, fox and wolf among others. 

Importance or Uses of forest

• Provision of food
• Provision of fuel
• Provision of medicinal herbs
• Provision of employment
• Forest serves as wind-break
• Formation of rain
• Prevention of soil erosion
• Purification of air
• Prevention of excessive leaching
• Addition of nutrients to soil
• Home of wild animals
• Forest serve as tourist centre
• Provision of foreign exchange
• Provision of timber
• Provision of pulp
• It beautifies the environment
• Reduces atmospheric pollution
• Sources of raw materials

Uses of Forest Products

1. Timber – used for building houses, canoes, local bridges and furniture. It is also exported to other countries and this earns the country valuable foreign exchange
2. Fuel – Firewood, coal and charcoal got from forest trees form excellent source of fuel
3. Source of Employment – It provides source of employment for many categories of workers such as forest guards, game wardens, hunters, sculptors.
4. Medicines – The trees of some forests can serve medicinal purposes e. eucalyptus, calabar bean
5. Food – Forests form excellent source of food to majority of people. Wild fruits, roots, stems, antelopes, grass cutters can be obtained from the forest.
6. Tourist attraction – The forest and game reserves are great tourist attraction and is also suitable for recreation.
7. Raw materials for Industries – certain trees provide raw materials such as fibre, ropes, dyes, resins, gums which are used by some industries as raw materials
8. Home for wild animals
9. Education – Forests provides opportunities for teachers as well as students in the department of forestry and wild life.

Human Activities that Affect Forest

Deforestation

Deforestation is the continuous removal of forest stands (trees)eithef by bush burning or indiscriminate feelling without replacing them. Ecomomic trees such as iroko,obeche,mahogamy, etc are cut down to so they can be used for various purpose

Causes of deforestation

• Unfavorable climatic factors
• Man’s farming activities
• Timber exploitation
• Natural disaster
• Government policy

Effects of Deforestation on the Environment

The effects of deforestation include:

1. Destruction of windbreaks which gives way for adverse wind attack.
2. Soil erosion which causes destruction to farmland and buildings.
3. Global warming caused by large concentration of CO2
4. Intense evaporation of soil water and soil nutrients due to exposure of the soil.
5. Danger to wildlife and possible extinction of some species of plants and animals.
6. Shortage of food due to drought.
7. Destruction of arboreal habitat.
8. Leads to loss of forest resources.

Afforestation

Afforestation is the process of establishing forest plantation in any area.it involve the complete removal of natural vegetation before planting new forest species.

Practice Questions

1. ____ is the continuous removal of forest stands (trees)eithef by bush burning or indiscriminate feelling without replacing them
2. ____  is the process of establishing forest plantation in any area.it involve the complete removal of natural vegetation before planting new forest species
3. A ___ can be defined as an area of land set aside for the production of timber and other forest  products
4. ___ and ____ are causes of deforestation
5. Forest products can be used for _____, _____ and _____

Answers

1. Deforestation
2. Afforestation
3. Forest
4. Unfavorable climatic factors
   Man’s farming activities
   Timber exploitation
   Natural disaster
   Government policy
5. Timber – used for building houses, canoes, local bridges and furniture. It is also exported to other countries and this earns the coutnry valuable foreign exchange
   Fuel – Firewood, coal and charcoal got from forest trees form excellent source of fuel
   Source of Employment – It provides source of employment for many categories of workers such as forest guards, game wardens, hunters, sculptors.
   Medicines – The trees of some forests can serve medicinal purposes e. eucalyptus, calabar bean
   Food – Forests form excellent source of food to majority of people. Wild fruits, roots, stems, antelopes, grass cutters can be obtained from the forest.
   Tourist attraction – The forest and game reserves are great tourist attraction and is also suitable for recreation.
   Raw materials for Industries
   Home for wild animals

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Farm Animal Diseases I

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 7 

Topic: Farm Animal Diseases (I)

Diseases

Diseases can be defined as the absence of normal health due to infection, nutritional deficiency and imbalance, hereditary and functional disorders as well as injuries. Diseases can also be described as any disturbance in the normal life or body function of an organism which may affect a particular organ or the whole body and sometimes leads to reduced growth, production or premature death.

Infectious Diseases – these are diseases which can affect an animal without the animal coming in contact with the infected animal. Transmission of this type of disease is through air, water, dust. Examples are fowl cholera, anthrax, tuberculosis.

Contagious Diseases – A disease is said to be contagious if the mode of transmission is by a healty animal coming in physical contact with an infected animal with the diseases being transferred. Examples of such diseases are Foot and Mouth Disease, Newcastle disease

Types of Diseases

1. Peracute disease – one that lasts only for a short time with no noticeable symptoms
2. Acute disease – This shows noticeable symptoms and manifests maximum causality
3. Sub – acute disease – This lasts more than acute with one or more symptoms of the disease
4. Chronic disease – This is the type that keeps on longer causing loss of growth and production but no resulting death of the animal

Causes of Disease

• Virus
• Bacteria
• Fungi
• Protozoa
• Malnutrition or metabolic disorder

Fungal Diseases

1. Ringworm – animals affected are poultry birds, pigs
   Causal Organism – fungus
   Symptoms
   – Lesions on the skin
   – Skin irritation
   – Loss of appetite and weight
   Method of Transmission
   Through infected animals, contact with infected brushes, feeders and drinkers.
   Control
   – Disinfection of all pens and equipment
   – Infected parts of animals should be treated every two to six days with mixture of Sulphur and vaseline
   – Old scabby area can be scrapped off and iodine solution applied.
2. Aspergilosis
   Animals affected – cattle, poultry birds, pigs and sheep
   Caused by Aspergillus fumigatus
   Symptoms
   – Loss of weight
   – High body temperature
   – Loss of appetite
   – Difficulty in Breathing
   – Skin irritation
   – Respiratory disorder
   Method of Transmission
   Via contaminated (mouldy) feed, mouldy litter and contaminated incubator
   Control –
   – Regular disinfection of pens and equipment
   – Avoid mouldy feed
   – Good sanitation
   – Spry with fungicides

Protozoa Diseases

1. Trypanosomiasis

Animals affected – Resistant breeds of cattle are N’Dama, Muturu and Keteku while susceptible breeds are White Fulani, Red Bororo, Kuri Chad, Sokoto Gudali and Boran.
Causal Organism
It is caused by a protozoan called Trypanosoma spp.
Symptoms are
– Rise in body temperature
– dullness in appearance
– anaemia
– sleepiness
– weakness
– dry coat
– nervous disorder
– loss of appetite and weight
Method of Transmission
Spread by blood sucking tsetse fly.
Control
i.   Clearing of bush around farm to remove the fly’s habitat
ii.  Biological control of insect vectors
iii. Treatment of infected animals with drugs such as antimosan, trypanosomide
iv.  Eradication of wild species or animal carriers in and around pasture

2. Coccidiosis – animals affected are poultry birds, domestic fowl, turkey, goose, rabbit
   Causal Organism – protozoa
   Symptoms
   – Loss of appetite
   – Dropping wings
   – High Mortality
   – Emaciation
   – Huddling
   – Dullness
   – Loss of hair
   – Blood stained diarrhea
   – Rough Feathers
   Control
   – Changing of Litter
   – Drugs such as amprolium, nitrofurazone should be administered
   – Avoid wet litters and feed
   – Proper sanitation

3. Red water fever
Animals affected – sheep, goat, cattle, pig.
Caused by babesia spp
Symptoms
– Emaciation and death
– Loss of weight and appetite
– Diarrhea
– Increase in body temperature
Mode of Transmission
Through bite of infected animal by vector called blue tick
Control
– Spray with insecticides to kill disease vector
– Inject animals with drugs like babesan, trypan blue and acaprin

Viral Diseases

1. Foot and Mouth Disease
   Animals affected are – cattle, sheep and goat
   Causal Organism – Virus
   Symptoms
   – Formation of blisters on the mucous membrane of the mouth and skin, hoofs
   – Salivation
   – Loss of weight
   – Lameness
   – Inflammation of teats and udder
   Method of Transmission – Via infected materials like urine, faeces and milk. Mechanical means by farmers
   Control
   Isolation of infected animals. Burning and burying of contaminated materials. Regular vaccination .
2. Newcastle Disease
   Animals Affected – Fowl, turkey. Ducks, goose and guinea fowl
   Causal Organism – Virus
   Symptoms
   – Respiratory symptoms include sneezing, coughing nasal discharge
   – Nervous symptoms include paralysis, muscle tremor, somersaulting and cycling movements
   – Digestive symptoms include lack of appetite and diarrhea
3. Rinder Pest Disease or Cattle Plague
   Animals affected are cattle, sheep and goat
   Causal Organism – virus
   Symptoms
   – high fever
   – weakness and fatigue
   – high mortality
   – loss of appetite and weight
   – blood stained diarrhea

Bacterial Diseases

1. Anthrax – affects cattle, sheep, goat and pigs.
   Causal organisam – Bacillus anthraxis
   Symptoms
   – high fever
   – Depression
   – Blood oozes from nose, mouth and anus
   – Loss of weight
   – Lack of appetite
   – Staggering and sudden death
   Method of transmission – via contaminated feed, water, equipment and infected animals
   Control
   – Regular Vaccination
   – Proper Sanitation
   – Isolation of infected Animals
2. Tuberculosis – animals affected are cattle, poultry birds, pigs and sheep
   Causal Organism – Mycobacterium tuberculosis
   Symptoms
   – difficult breathing
   – loss of weight and appetite
   – soft and moist cough
   – milk reduction
   – high mortality
   – constant coughing
   – emaciation

         Method of Transmission
         Via inspiration of germs, contaminated water, feed, litters and droppings
         Control
         – regular sanitation
         – slaughter infected animals
         – proper sanitation

3. Brucellosis or Contagious Abortion
   Animals affected are – Pigs, sheep, cattle and goat
   Symptoms
   – High fever
   – Diarrhea
   – Dysentery
   – Inflammation of the uterus, scrotum
   – Infertility in male animals
   – Reduction in milk production
   – Still birth and premature abortions
   – Posterior paralysis
   Method of Transmission – Through contaminated feed and water
   Control
   – Proper sanitation
   – Regular Vaccination
   – Isolation of infected animals
   Treatment – No effective treatment

Practice Questions

1.____ can be defined as the absence of normal health due to infection, nutritional deficiency and imbalance, hereditary and functional disorders as well as injuries.

2. Brucellosis affects the following animals except
a. poultry
b. cattle
c. sheep
d. goat

3. ____ is not a bacterial disease

a. Brucellosis
b. Anthrax
c. Rinder pest
d. Tuberculosis

4. One of this is a viral disease
a. Foot and mouth disease
b. Tuberculosis
c. Red water fever
d. Tuberculosis

5. ____ disease is one that lasts only for a short time with no noticeable symptoms
a. Acute
b. Sub-acute
c. Terminal
d. Per-acute

Answers

1. Disease
2. A
3. C
4. A
5. D

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Farm Animal Diseases II

Agriculture JSS2 Third Term

Week 8

Topic: Farm Animal Diseases (II)

Signs of Disease in farm animals

1. Unthriftiness
2. Lack of appetite
3. Dullness
4. Rough coat
5. Ruffled feather in poultry
6. Wasting
7. Diarrhea or water stool
8. Premature abortion
9. Increased mortality rate
10. Discharge from mouth and eyes
11. Decrease in activities
12. Loss of weight
13. Blood stains in faeces
14. Reduced production

Economic Importance of Animal Disease

1. Poor growth of animals
2. Diseases lead to poor feed utilization due to loss of appetite
3. Low yield of products
4. Low income to farmers due to reduced quantity and quality of products
5. Money is spent on curing the animal

Factors that can predispose animals to disease

1. Health status of the animal
2. Poor nutritional diet – Animals who are poorly fed are prone to diseases
3. Poor sanitation – When the environment is dirty, Animals can contract diseases
4. Poor management of the animals – Non administration of vaccines and drugs at appropriate doses and time
5. Poor housing of the animals
6. Unfavorable climatic conditions – Extreme temperature, winds and rainfalls can affect animals
7. Poor breeds of animals

General Principles of Preventing and Controlling Animal Diseases

• Farm animals should be provided with clean and well ventilated houses as well as dry beddings.
• All newly purchased animals should be quarantined and isolated for at least two weeks before joining the old stock. All sick animals should be isolated and treated.
• Farm animals shoulc be vaccinated at different stages of their growth to prevent certain diseases
• Use resistant breeds where appropriate
• Sometimes infected animals should be eliminated and slaughtered instead of being treated as some diseases are stubborn and might not be cured even when the animals have been treated
• Regular dipping and spraying stock with appropriate insecticides wi;; destroy ectoparasites
• Regular deworming of farm animals

Practice Questions

1. List 4 symptoms of diseases in Animals
2. Give 3 economic importance of Animal diseases

JSS2 Agricultural Science Third Term: Husbandry of Selected Crops (Maize)

Agricultural Science, JSS 2, Week 1

Topic: Husbandry of Selected Crops

Content

1. Meaning of Crop Husbandry
2. Selected crops (maize)

Crop Husbandry simply means careful management of the establishment, growth and harvesting of crops

1. Cereals  – Maize;Botanical Name: Zea mays

Land Preparation

1. Clearing of land
2. Stumping should be done
3. Land should be harrowed
4. Ridges can also be prepared

 Propagation

1. It is propagated by seed
2. May be planted manually
3. May be planted mechanically

 Climatic requirement: It requires a temperature of about 20Oc – 30Oc. Rainfall should be between 75cm – 150cm annually

Soil requirement: Well drained loam and silt loam with fine tilth.

Planting date: Early planting type is planted between March and April. Late maize can be planted anytime depending on the rate of rainfall in the north and south.

 Seed Rate

1. 25 – 20kg maize seed per hectare.
2. 2 -3 seeds per hole

Spacing

1. 25cm along the row and 75cm between rows
2. 30cm x 60cm along and between the rows respectively.
3. 90cm x 60cm at two seeds per hole

 Cultural Practices

 Supplying: This is the process of filling the in-germinated spaces

Thinning: Removal of weak or excess plants per hole in a farmland e.g. thin maize one or two per hole.

 Fertilizer application

1.  Apply N.P.K 15:15:15 at about 200kg or 4 bags per hectare.
2. Apply farmyard /poultry dropping/organic manure by side dressing or by broadcast method.

Weeding

1.  Weed farmland regularly
2. Use manual Methods e.g. hoe and cutlass
3. Use chemical or mechanical method

Maturity period: 3 – 4 months or 90 – 120 days after planting

 Harvesting

1.  Maize can be harvested either green or dry
2. Mostly harvested when dry
3. Harvested on a small scale by plucking the cobs and on a large scale by machines such as corn-picker
4. We can also use sickle to harvest maize

 Storage

1.  Store above fire-place.
2. Store in air-tight container
3. It can also be stored in flour form

Yield

1. About 3,500kg/hectare for improved varieties
2. About 600 to 1,200kg/hectare for local varieties
3. Processing: The husks can be removed from the cobs
4. Shelling should be done to remove grains from the Cobs
5. Winnowing is done to remove dirt from the grain.

Pest of Maize

1. Stem Borer: It is a field pest which larva destroys young stems
2. Maize Weevil: It is both filed and store pest. The adult and larva destroy the grains
3. Grasshopper: It destroys the vegetative parts of the plant

Control of Pests

1. Plant resistant variety
2. Early planting
3. Fumigate the store with BHC Powder or phostorin tablets
4. Early harvesting

Practice Question

What is the first thing you do on a land when you want to plant?

Answers

Land clearing