• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT IN CULTURE
• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: ORAL INTONATION PATTERN- RISING AND FALLING TONE IN STATEMENTS
• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: READING COMPREHENSION
• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: ORAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS
• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: CONJUNCTIONS
• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: THE SCHWA AS FINAL UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE
• SS3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE FIRST TERM: ENGAGING IN MEANINGFUL DIALOGUE ON ANY GIVEN SUBJECT MATTER
• ARGUMENTATIVE TOPICS, COMPLEX SENTENCE STRUCTURES AND SUMMARIZING TIPS
• DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN BRITISH AND AMERICAN SPELLINGS OF COMMON WORDS

SS3 English Language First Term: Vocabulary Development in Culture

What is Vocabulary Development? 

Vocabulary Development can be defined as the process through which human beings acquire words right from infancy. This process typically starts with the babbling of sounds which is associated with babies. Over time, this shifts towards meaningful speech patterns as the babies grow. And by age one, most babies are able to produce their first words. Meanwhile, as you may well know, most infants used their early formative years to build to build up their vocabularies. This is always a gradual and even slow process.

Further Explanation: Vocabulary Development in Culture

In order to build their vocabularies, infants begin by learning about the meanings associated with words. This is referred to as mapping problem, which is all about how infants are able to correctly attach words to referents. They learn this by mere practice- communicating with family members who teach them how to relate with society, and  with friends too. As a matter of fact, friends have been noted as playing very vital roles in the vocabulary formation process. This is because in their interactions with peers, children have the opportunity to learn about unique conversational roles.

Phonological Development

Studies related to vocabulary development show that children’s language competence depends upon their ability to hear sounds during infancy. Infants’ perception of speech is distinct. Between six and ten months of age, infants can discriminate sounds used in the languages of the world. By 10 to 12 months, infants can no longer discriminate between speech sounds that are not used in the language(s) to which they are exposed. Among six-month-old infants, seen articulations (i.e. the mouth movements they observe others make while talking) actually enhance their ability to discriminate sounds, and may also contribute to infants’ ability to learn phonemic boundaries. Infants’ phonological register is completed between the ages of 18 months and 7 years.

Children’s phonological development normally proceeds as follows:

6–8 weeks: Cooing appears

16 weeks: Laughter and vocal play appear

6–9 months: Reduplicated (canonical) babbling appears

12 months: First words use a limited sound repertoire

18 months: Phonological processes (deformations of target sounds) become systematic

18 months–7 years: Phonological inventory completion

At each stage mentioned above, children play with sounds and learn methods to help them learn words. There is a relationship between children’s pre-linguistic phonetic skills and their lexical progress at age two: failure to develop the required phonetic skills in their pre-linguistic period results in children’s delay in producing words.Environmental influences may affect children’s phonological development, such as hearing loss as a result of ear infections. Deaf infants and children with hearing problems due to infections are usually delayed in the beginning of vocal babbling.

It is important to note that vocabulary development in every culture is inevitable as it is necessary for every child’s learning process. Most times, this process occurs naturally while on a few occasions some children may experience difficulties due to certain impairments in their motor skills. In any case, assistance from parents and caregivers go along way in speeding up and helping children to acquire the needful vocabulary and begin the learning process which life is all about. And the interesting thing is that this vocabulary development process never really stops throughout anybody’s lifetime as we all keep learning/acquiring new words within our specific cultures until the day we die.

Comprehension: Listening Rudiments on Comprehension to Produce  main Points and Ideas in Speeches, Lectures or Discussions

Listening comprehension is the receptive skill needed to decode information in the oral mode. In other words, it has to do with the ability to understand what is being spoken to you. Unfortunately, as simple as these sounds, not many people are able to effectively listen to understand. This is a serious problem in the communication process that is often over-looked if not disregarded as a non-factor. However, in order to be an effective communicator, it is imperative that that you acquire the right listening skills and use them every time you are engaged in any form of verbal communication with people. Enumerated below are some of the rudiments to effective verbal comprehension.

1: Face the Speaker and Maintain Eye Contact: Do your conversational partners the courtesy of turning to face them. Put aside papers, books, the phone and other distractions. Look at them, even if they don’t look at you.

2: Be attentive, but relaxed: Now that you’ve made eye contact with the speaker, you have to stay relaxed and yet focused. In other words, you don’t have to stare consistently at the other speaker throughout the duration of his or her speech. You can look away now and then and carry on like a normal person. The important thing is to be attentive. The dictionary says that to “attend” another person means to:

• be present
• give attention
• apply or direct yourself
• pay attention
• remain ready to serve

3: Keep an open mind: Listen without judging the other person or mentally criticizing the things she tells you. If what she says alarms you, go ahead and feel alarmed, but don’t say to yourself, “Well, that was a stupid move.” As soon as you indulge in judgmental bemusements, you’ve compromised your effectiveness as a listener.

4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying: Allow your mind to create a mental model of the information being communicated. Whether a literal picture, or an arrangement of abstract concepts, your brain will do the necessary work if you stay focused, with senses fully alert. When listening for long stretches, concentrate on, and remember, key words and phrases.

6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions: When you don’t understand something, of course you should ask the speaker to explain it to you. But rather than interrupt, wait until the speaker pauses. Then say something like, “Back up a second. I didn’t understand what you just said about…”

Summary Writing

A summary is a record in a reader’s own words that gives the main points of a piece of writing such as a newspaper article, the chapter of a book, or even a whole book. It is also possible to summarize something that you have heard, such as a lecture, or something that you have seen and heard, such as a movie. A summary omits details, and does not include the reader’s interpretation of the original.

Important things to note about summary writing-

1. As you read, underline all the important points and and all the important evidence. For example, you could look for all the topic sentences. Words that are repeated several times are likely to be keywords. Transition words can help understanding of the overall structure of a passage.2. List or cluster the main idea of the whole piece, the main supporting ideas, and the main evidence for each idea. Use of the same keywords or technical expressions is probably unavoidable. However, be careful to express the ideas in your own way, using your own vocabulary and expressions as much as possible, rather than copying or just rearranging. Do not include too much detail.

Features of a good Summary

1. A good summary should give an objective outline of the whole piece of writing. It should answer basic questions about the original text such as “Who did what, where, and when?”, or “What is the main idea of the text?”, “What are the main supporting points?”, “What are the major pieces of evidence?”. It should not be a paraphrase of the whole text using your own words. A reference should be made to the original piece either in the title (“A Summary of…”), in the first sentence, or in a footnote or endnote.

2. You should not give your own ideas or criticisms as part of the summary. However, if you want to comment on a piece of writing it is usual to begin by summarizing it as objectively as possible.

3. A good summary should not include selected examples, details, or information which are not relevant to the piece of writing taken as a whole.

4. A good summary of an essay should probably include the main idea of each paragraph, and the main evidence supporting that idea, unless it is not relevant to the article or essay as a whole. A summary does not need a conclusion, but if the original ends with a message to the reader this should not be left out. (A good summary of a chapter should probably include the main idea of each group of paragraphs or each section; a good summary of a book should probably include the main idea of each chapter, or perhaps the main idea of each section of each chapter.)

5. A good summary may use key words from the original text but should not contain whole phrases or sentences from the original unless quotation marks are used. Quotations should only be made if there is a reason for using the original words, for example because the choice of words is significant, or because the original is so well expressed.

6. Rearranging the words used in the original, or keeping the same structure but just substituting different words is not enough. You must express the sense of the original using your own words and structures.

How to Write a Summary of a Short piece of Writing

1. As you read, underline all the important points and and all the important evidence. For example, you could look for all the topic sentences. If there is a word or words that are repeated throughout the passage, this is likely to be related to the topic.  Transitional words and phrases should help you to understand how the piece is joined together. The main idea should be in the first or second paragraph, probably in a thesis statement at the end of the paragraph, or in the concluding paragraph. (You could look out for the 5Ws – What?, Which?, Who?, Where?, When?, Why? – and the 1H – How?)

2. List or cluster the main idea of the whole piece, the main supporting ideas, and the main evidence for each idea. Be careful to use your own words rather than copying or just rearranging. In other words, try to find your own way of expressing the writer’s ideas. Of course, you can use key words or phrases. (For example, if the piece of writing is about digital technology, it is fine to use key technical words that are in the original, such as “digital technology”, “binary digit” or “analog”.) Do not include too much detail.

3. Change the order if necessary, so that the main idea comes first and is followed by the supporting ideas and evidence in a logical sequence. Omit any repetitions.

4. If the original uses ‘I’ replace this with the writer’s actual surname, “the writer”, or “s/he”. If the original uses ‘you’, substitute “people” or “they”.

5. You should now be ready to write the summary. Start with a sentence that a) identifies the writer and the piece of writing, for example by giving the writer’s name, the title of the piece and where/when it appeared, and b) gives the main idea. Use transition words to join everything together.

Exercise

1. What do you understand by vocabulary development?
2. Which of the following statements is false? (A) During infancy, children’s language competence depends upon their ability to hear sounds during infancy (B) During infancy; children’s perception of speech is distinct (C) Infants can differentiate between the different sounds of the various languages of the world (D) Infants are language masters
3. Briefly explain a regular infant’s phonological development.
4. What are the features of a good summary work?

SS3 English Language First Term: Reading Comprehension

What is Reading Comprehension? 

Reading comprehension is as the level of understanding of a text/message. This understanding comes from the interaction between the words that are written, and how they trigger knowledge outside the text/message. Comprehension is a “creative, multifaceted process” dependent upon four language skills: phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is also determined by an individual’s cognitive development, which is “the construction of thought processes”. Some people learn through education or instruction and others through direct experiences.

There are specific traits that determine how successfully an individual will comprehend text, including prior knowledge about the subject, well-developed language, and the ability to make inferences. Having the skill to monitor comprehension is a factor: “Why is this important?” and “Do I need to read the entire text?” are examples. Lastly, is the ability to be self-correcting to solve comprehension problems as they arise.

Summary- Answering Questions by Picking out Topic Sentences

A topic sentence is a sentence that captures the meaning of the entire paragraph or group of sentences. It tells what the passage is mainly about. In other words, a topic sentence summarizes the entire message in every good paragraph ever written. Therefore, when you are required to read, comprehend and then answer questions on a essay during an examination, it does help to identify the topic sentences in said essay as that would assist you. Below are some of the tips for picking out topic sentences-

• Read the first sentence carefully. Three times out of five, the topic sentence is the first sentence.
• Consider what basic property or characteristic the paragraph describes. This attribute is the paragraph’s main idea, so the sentence that expresses it is your topic sentence.
• Think about the paragraph’s purpose. The paragraph most likely wants to impart a particular piece of information. If you can figure out what that piece is, you know the paragraph’s topic and can find the sentence that presents it.

Composition (Letters): Distinguishing between the Features of Formal and Informal Letters

PURPOSES: A formal letter is typical meant for official purposes and as such must be written in formal language. This is the major differentiating factor between a formal letter and an informal letter because unlike the formal letter, an informal is by nature chummy; written to friends and relatives.

OBJECTIVES: In the corporate world as well as in government and any professional environment, there is inevitable need for constant communication. And letter writing is one of the means to ensure that this happens. Therefore, it can be said that the objective for writing formal letters is to ensure professional communication. This is almost similar to informal letter writing whose purpose is to ensure personal communication.

FORMAT: There are distinct formats for writing formal and informal letters. For one, the formal letter must have two addresses, starting with the writer’s address which must be on the top right corner of the page, followed by a date. And the second one (belonging to the recipient of the letter) should follow, on the left corner of the page just slightly adjacent the first address. But just in case the writer is writing on a Letterhead, then there would be no need to rewrite the writer’s address as it is already on the Letterhead. The purpose of the letter is then written in bold letters and centralized just before the salutation. The body of the letter should be concise and professional. No need talking about irrelevant stuff. It is business so keep it professional, simple and short; unless unavoidably necessary. The closing is equally just as important. Be polite, graceful even but not personal.

 On the other hand, when writing an informal letter there is need [only] for one address. Letterheads are typically not used, and there is no for a topic. Greetings are acceptable but always in friendlier tones than in formal letters. In the body you get to talk about all kinds of personal stuff. And you can close by telling your recipient that you love them.

RECIPIENT: Formal letters are written to business partners, universities/employers and organizations etc. On the other hand, informal letters are written to friends, family and acquaintances.

TONE: Formal letters are passive in tone while informal letters are active.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE: When writing formal letter, the preferred sentence structure is for it to be long and complex.  But for informal letters, it should be short and simple.

Exercise

1. What is reading comprehension?
2. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions below-

Public Administration

Public administration is the implementation of government policy and also an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for working in the public service. As a “field of inquiry with a diverse scope” its “fundamental goal… is to advance management and policies so that government can function.” Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are: “the management of public programs”; the “translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day”;and “the study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies.”

Public administration is “centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct”. Many unelected public servants can be considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, human resources (H.R.) administrators, city managers, census managers, state mental health directors, and cabinet secretaries.Public administrators are public servants working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government.

In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted American civil service reform in the 1880s, moving public administration into academia. However, “until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the German sociologist Max Weber’s theory of bureaucracy” there was not “much interest in a theory of public administration.” The field is multidisciplinary in character; one of the various proposals for public administration’s sub-fields sets out six pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis and statistics, budgeting, and ethics.

1. According to the passage, what is public administration?
2. How many paragraphs are there in this passage?
3. What is the main idea expressed in paragraph two?
4. Who promoted the American Civil Service Reform, when and how?

3. Write two letters, one to your dad and the other to your principal explaining why you decided to organise a protest in your school.

SS3 English Language First Term: Oral Consonant Clusters

What are Consonant Clusters?

Consonant Clusters are consonants which have no intervening vowels. In other words, Consonant Clusters  are groups of consonants with no vowels between them. In English, for example, the groups /spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits. The longest possible cluster in English is three consonant sounds at the start, such as ‘splash’, and four at the end, as in ‘twelfths’.

It is important to note that Consonant Clusters cause problems for learners whose first language does not allow so many consonants together without intervening vowel sounds.

Example of Consonant Clusters

The tongue twister ‘The sixth twisty crisp’ has several consonant clusters in it, making it difficult to pronounce.

Composition: Expository Writing 

Expository writing is a type of writing that is used to explain, describe, give information, or inform.  The text is organized around one topic and developed according to a pattern or combination of patterns.  The writer of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed.  Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms to improve skills in exposition is to improve the organization of the text.  The patterns shown below are frequently used to create an expository essay.  Additionally, more than one pattern may be used within an expository essay.

Example- How To Prepare Your Favourite Snacks and Desserts

Butter, cake and yoghurt…these are some of the foods teenagers love to eat. I know this so well because I have younger ones at home, one of whom practically eats everything with butter; including rice and yam. Therefore, considering how much you all love these food items, I figured you may also like to learn about the processes they undergo before they are ready for your consumption. So here served (courtesy of me) are the different ways of preparing your yummy, favourite foods. Enjoy please!

BUTTER: butter is consisted mainly of fat derived from the cream of milk cows produce in their udder. It is delicious by the way and is used for baking, cooking or just eaten with bread. While most of the butter we consume is industrially-produced, you can also make your own butter right in the comfort of your kitchen. Here is a step by step breakdown of how you can accomplish just that. First, get three (or more) cups of cream and then defrost the cream in your microwave until it comes to room temperature. Then proceed to put the cream in a food processor, add ½ cups of water and then turn on the mixer. Leave the mixer running until you begin to see the buttermilk and the thick butter getting separated. By this time, you should be able to see some lumps of butter already forming. Go ahead to strain the butter from the buttermilk, add flavouring such as salt or sugar [if you please] and then store in the refrigeration. Wuala! Your home-made butter is ready for consumption.

YOGHOURT: Yoghourt is produced through the bacterial fermentation of milk. It is a delicious and creamy food item enjoyed by many people of all ages and genders. And just like butter earlier discussed, yoghourts are also industrially-produced but can also be made in the comforts of anybody’s kitchen. Here is everything you must have if you’d like to make your own yoghourt in your kitchen. Ingredients include: ½ gallons of milk and ½ cup of commercial yoghourt that contains active cultures. You will also need to have the following equipment:  three quart Dutch oven or heavy saucepan with a lid Spatula, a candy thermometer (one that can clip to the side of the pan) and Small measuring cup or small bowl. Once you have these, follow these instructions to get your yoghourt ready for the eating- heat the milk, cool it, thin the yoghourt with milk, whisk the thinned yoghourt into milk, return to the oven and allow to heat and set and allow the yoghourt to cool. And there you have it; your yummy yoghourt!

CAKE: Cakes are typically made of flour, sugar, butter and eggs. It is rich in most food nutrients, always baked in the oven and eaten as desserts. Here are tips on how to get your cake made in the kitchen. First of all, get the following ingredients- 1/2 cup unsalted butter, 11/2 cups sugar 3 large eggs, 2 1/4 cups all-purpose flour, 1 teaspoon salt, 3 1/2 teaspoons baking powder, 1 1/4 cups whole milk, 1 teaspoon vanilla and 2 1/2 cups butter cream frosting. Also, ensure to have the following equipment – 2 9-inches round pans, Stand/hand mixer, Measuring cups and spoons and Cookie scoop or measuring cup, for dividing the batter.

The instructions are as follows- Heat the oven to 350°F, sift together your ingredients (i.e. flour, baking powder and salt) and set aside, prepare your pans by robbing butter in them, beat your butter and sugar together until they become fluffy and soft and then add your eggs at a time. Proceed to beat in half the flour and baking powder, beat in your milk and vanilla, beat in the remaining flour mixture until it is very combined  and then divide the batter between panes. Bake for thirty minutes in the oven and allow cooling afterwards. Once cool, frost and assemble the cake with the butter cream.

Please note that these are not scientifically-set procedures for preparing these food items. In other words, recipes and procedures may vary across homes depending on tastes and preferences. In any case, I hope you find these tips helpful.

Best.

 Exercise

1. What are consonant clusters? Explain.
2. How does consonant clusters cause problems to some non-native speakers of the English Language?
3. Give several examples of consonant clusters.
4. What is expository writing?
5. Write an expository essay on how to cook fried rice.

SS3 English Language First Term: The Schwa as final Unstressed Syllable

Understanding the Schwa

The reduced vowel sound called schwa is the most common vowel sound in spoken English. Schwa is a quick, relaxed, neutral vowel pronunciation very close to a ‘short u’ /ʌ/. The purpose of schwa is to allow unstressed syllables to be said more quickly so the main beats of spoken words are easier to place on the stressed syllables.

Schwa does not have an exact and standard pronunciation. Due to the near-identical pronunciation of schwa and short u, many dictionaries merge the transcription of the two sounds and strictly use /ə/. Separate symbols are retained here to indicate whether a vowel sound falls on a stressed or unstressed syllable.

Schwa occurs in two different circumstances:

1. in an unstressed syllable of a multi-syllable word
2. as a reduced vowel sound in a function word

What is the Unstressed Syllable?

To better understand  what an unstressed syllable is all about, it is important to first understand what know a syllable is. That said, a syllable is the smallest unit of word which is also often considered as the “building blocks” of words. It influences the rhythm or stress patterns in words. All syllables must have a vowel or a vowel sound, and in most single-syllable words, the vowel sound is very distinct (long, short, r-controlled, etc.).

In words that are more than one syllable, one of the syllables will have a vowel sound that is neutral or [more] muted. This is referred as the “unstressed syllable” in the word. The vowel sound heard in the unstressed syllable is frequently the schwa (short u or short i sound) and is represented in the dictionary with the upside-down e.  This is a contrast to the stressed syllables  which are often perceived as being more forceful than non-stressed syllables. An example of the unstressed syllable would be the word, open. It is pronounced “O-pun” and the second syllable is the unstressed syllable in the word. The unstressed syllable or schwa sound in multi-syllabic words is not “sloppy” English; rather correct pronunciation for word vocabulary.

In other words, for words with more than one syllable, not every syllable is given equal emphasis when spoken. Three levels of syllable stress are possible and these include-

1. stressed  /⬤/
2. secondarily stressed /●/
3. unstressed /•/

Every multi-syllable word has a single stressed syllable. The single stressed syllable of the word has the most emphasis. The remainder of the syllables may have a secondary stress or may be unstressed.

The word emphasize has all the levels of stress. The first syllable is stressed, the second syllable is an unstressed syllable pronounced as schwa, and the third syllable has a secondary stress.

Grammar Modals

Grammar Modals (also known as modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs which are known to behave irregularly in English language. They are different from normal verbs such as “work, play, visit…” And their work is to give additional information about the functions of the main verbs that follow them. In other words, they have a great variety of communicative functions.

Characteristics of Modal Verbs

• They never change their form. You can’t add “s”, “ed”, “ing”…
• They are always followed by an infinitive without “to” (e.i. the bare infinitive.)
• They are used to indicate modality allow speakers to express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability

Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like “work, play, visit…” They give additional information about the function of the main verb that follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions.

List of Modal Verbs

Here is a list of modal verbs:

can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must

The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need not behave like modal auxiliaries to a large extent and my be added to the above list

Uses of Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:

1. Permission
2. Ability
3. Obligation
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. possibility
8. probability

Examples of Modal Verbs

Here is a list of modals with examples:

Modal Verb	Expressing	Example
Must	Strong obligation	You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
	logical conclusion / Certainty	He must be very tired. He’s been working all day long.
Must not	prohibition	You must not smoke in the hospital.
Can	ability	I can swim.
	permission	Can I use your phone please?
	possibility	Smoking can cause cancer.
Could	ability in the past	When I was younger I could run fast.
	polite permission	Excuse me, could I just say something?
	possibility	It could rain tomorrow!
May	permission	May I use your phone please?
	possibility, probability	It may rain tomorrow!
Might	polite permission	Might I suggest an idea?
	possibility, probability	I might go on holiday to Australia next year.
Need not	lack of necessity/absence of obligation	I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of tomatoes in the fridge.
Should/Ought to	50 % obligation	I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.
	advice	You should / ought to revise your lessons
	logical conclusion	He should / ought to be very tired. He’s been working all day long.
Had Better	advice	You ‘d better revise your lessons

Composition: Report Writing, Types and Example

Report Writing is the process of putting together an informational work that is made with the specific intention of relaying information or recounting certain events in a widely presentable and scrutinized form. There are several types of report writings some of which are listed below-

Some examples of reports are:

• Annual Reports
• Auditor’s eports
• Book Reports
• Bound Reports
• Retail Reports
• Census Reports
• Credit Reports
• Demographic Reports

Exercise

1. What is the Schwa sound in English Language?
2. The schwa sound can occur in either of two ways; true or false?
3. What do you understand by an unstressed syllable?
4. How is an unstressed syllable different from a stressed syllable? Explain.
5. Explain what you understand by grammar modals and enumerate the characteristics.
6. What are the uses of grammar modals?
7. Write a report on any preferred topic of you.

SS3 English Language First Term: Conjunctions

What is a Conjunction?

A conjunction is the part of speech that serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. The common conjunctions — and, but, for, or, nor, yet, and so — join the elements of a coordinate structure.

Types of Conjunctions

1. Subordinating Conjunction: A Subordinating Conjunction is a conjunction that introduces a dependent clause, joining it to a main clause. Also called a subordinator. Most subordinating conjunctions are single words (e.g., because, before, when). However, some subordinating conjunctions consist of more than one word (e.g., as long as, except that).

Common Subordinating Conjunctions

a. Cause
as
because
in order that
since
so that

b. Concession and Comparison
although
as
as though
even though
just as
though
whereas
while

c. Condition
even if
if
in case
provided that
unless

d. Place
where
wherever

e. Time
after
as soon as
as long as
before
once
still
till
until
when
whenever
while

Examples

While the State exists, there can be no freedom. When there is freedom, there will be no State.

If everyone demanded peace instead of another television set, then there would be peace.

I can believe anything, provided that it is quite incredible

2. Coordinating Conjunctions: Coordinating Conjunction is a conjunction (such as and) that joins two similarly constructed and/or syntactically equal words or phrases or clauses within a sentence. The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet. Compare with subordinating conjunctions, in some cases, as shown in the examples below, a coordinating conjunction may also be used at the beginning of a new sentence.

Examples

I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones.

She must have been tired, for she fell asleep the moment she inclined her head.

It’s a sad day when you find out that it’s not accident or time or fortune but just yourself that kept things from you.

3. Correlative Conjunction: A  Correlative Conjunction is a paired conjunction (such as not only . . . but also) that links balanced words, phrases, and clauses. The elements connected by correlative conjunctions are usually parallel–that is, similar in length and grammatical form. Each element is called a conjoin.

These are the primary correlative conjunctions in English:
both . . . and
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
not . . . but
not only . . . but also

Other pairs that sometimes have a coordinating function include the following:
as . . . as
just as . . . so
the more . . . the less
the more . . . the more
no sooner . . . than
so . . . as
whether . . . or

Examples

By about midnight, the other travelers had found a place to sleep, either in the huts of the village or under the coach itself

Those who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety deserveneither liberty nor safety

To accomplish great things, we must not only act, but also dream; not only plan, but also believe.

Exercise

1. What are conjunctions?
2. List and explain the different types of conjunction that you know.
3. List about fifty common subordinating conjunctions.
4. What are primary correlative conjunctions? Give examples.

SS3 English Language First Term: Engaging in Meaningful Dialogue on any Given Subject Matter

What is a Dialogue?

Dialogue (also spelt as dialog in U.S. English) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. It can also be defined as a focused and intentional conversation, a space of civility and equality in which those who differ may listen and speak together.

How to Engage in meaningful Dialogue on any Given Subject Matter

1. Deep listening: In its most simple form, deep listening derives from the conscious choice to listen. It involves quietening the voice in our heads so that we can hear the true story of the person to whom we are listening. As we listen to understand their whole story we literally stay quiet and just listen. In exercises that we conduct on listening, people often report that they are amazed at how much they can hear when they know that all they have to do is listen. Instead of readying him/herself for when it is their turn to speak, the listener focuses instead on understanding the [current] speaker. Deep listening can occur anywhere, anytime. It could be with a team member while walking down a corridor. It might be with a customer in a busy department store or on the telephone. It might even be with our own partners! Imagine the difference that enhanced listening could make in that domain! The common element in all listening examples is the genuine choice to listen. It is both powerful and important if deep listening is to occur.

2. Respecting others: “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” The above is a quote by a man called Voltaire who was a French Philosopher. This perspective of his on dialogue lies at the heart of respecting others. Clearly this is particularly difficult to do when we interact with people who have contrasting views to our own. Practicing this dialogue skill therefore becomes imperative if we are to develop the true capacity to dialogue. While respecting others does not mean that you have to agree with them, it does mean that you will allow them the time and space to have their say and you will see it as a perspective that while you may not understand it, it is a perspective that is valid in the context that it contributes, even if only in a small way, to our understanding of the ‘complete’ picture of whatever is our area of focus at the time.

3. Inquiry: This is the capacity to ask genuine questions. As such it encourages the use of open questions that enhance our understanding of different perspectives, or assist in the deeply held mental models that lie behind many perspectives to come to the surface. The blog The Art of Skilful Questions provides a range of insights and suggestion to assist with developing improved questioning skills.

4. Voicing Openly (Advocacy): Many of us are quite talented in this skill, at least in part. Voicing openly is the capacity to say what you think and to be able to explain why you think what you think. Unfortunately many people struggle to share their view. All views, if they exist, are important for the development of a true understanding of a situation. If those views are not shared, then a part of the picture is missing which is why voicing is so important in the context of dialogue.

5. Suspending assumptions & judgement: The capacity to explain why we hold the views that we hold lies at the heart of suspending assumptions & judgements. Much like we hang our clothes on a line for them to dry, suspending means that we ‘hang out’ our reasons for our views. This allows people to look at them, question them and assist us in developing a deeper understanding of our perspectives. To suspend your assumptions & judgements illustrates a willingness to be vulnerable which is a key attribute of servant leaders (see the blogs Dee Hock – an example of a Servant Leader and The Paradoxes of Servant Leadership if you are not aware of servant leadership). Should we discover that our views are not useful through the act of having suspended them before others, we have the opportunity to adopt new ones. This experience is often described as true learning.

6. Balancing Voicing and Inquiry: This is as simple and complex as balancing sharing our view and why we have it with asking genuine questions to better understand another person’s view, or to allow the group to talk about issues that will enhance the whole group’s collective understanding of a topic. To practice this skill involves utilising all the skills listed above; deep listening, respecting others, inquiry, voicing openly and suspending assumptions & judgements. Even if the other people with whom you are conversing are not trying to dialogue, practicing this skill significantly enhances the quality of your contribution to the conversation. People will notice your enhanced communication skills because the quality of the conversations within which you participate will be enhanced by your contributions to them.

7. Reflecting: Our fast paced world offers little time to reflect. However the capacity to reflect is a big rock (see the blog The Rocks and the Jar) and enhances our communication skills and capacity to dialogue through considering how we have just practiced our skills. In team environments it is worth holding a reflection at the end of an attempted dialogue to recognise where the skills of dialogue were used effectively and where they could be improved.

Quick Exercise: Now try to dialogue with someone on either of the following topics- Drug Abuse, Child Abuse, Core Values and Discipline. Ensure to apply all the rules of effective communication as enumerated above.

Grammar: Prepositions

Simply put, prepositions are words (often short words) which expresses the relationship between two other nearby words. In the examples below, each preposition shows us the relationship between the word book and the word wizard.

• The book about the wizard
• The book by the wizard
• The book near the wizard
• The book behind the wizard
• The book under the wizard

The Functions of Prepositions

Prepositions precede the nouns (or pronouns) to show the nouns’ (or the pronouns’) relationships to other words in sentences. In the examples above, the preposition preceded the noun wizard to show that noun’s relationship with the noun book.

Here are some more examples-

1. It is a container for butter. Here, the preposition for shows the relationship between
butter and container.

2. The eagle soared above the clouds. The preposition above shows the relationship between clouds and
soared

Object of a Preposition

The word (or words) that follows a preposition is called the object of a preposition. If there is a preposition, there will always be an object of the preposition. A preposition cannot exist by itself.

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and the object of the preposition (including any modifiers). Prepositional phrases are very common. They function as either adjectives or adverbs. For example (prepositional phrases highlighted):

1.It is a message from Mark.

(Here, the prepositional phrase from Mark is functioning like an adjective because it is describing
message.

2.Mark is trapped on the island.

(Here, the prepositional phrase
on the island is functioning like an adverb because it is modifying the verb
is trapped

Pitfalls with Prepositions

For native English speakers, serious grammatical errors involving prepositions are rare. The most common questions involving prepositions are shown below:

• Can you end a sentence in a preposition?
• Is the preposition absolutely necessary?
• What follows a preposition?

 Exercise

1. What is a dialogue?
2. Briefly explain the right way to dialogue with someone or people.
3. Choose a partner and engage in a dialogue for five minutes on any preferred topic, putting into consideration all the rules guiding a good conversation.
4. What are prepositions?
5. Briefly explain the importance/functions of prepositions in English grammar.

Argumentative Topics, Complex Sentence Structures and Summarizing Tips

What are Argumentative Topics?

In essay writing or during debates, argumentative topics typically requires the student to first thoroughly investigate a topic by collecting or generating evidence and evaluating said evidence in order to establish a position on the topic albeit in a concise and logical manner. It is of uttermost importance that every student master the rudiments and skills of effective argumentation; hence the need for argumentative topics.

Arguing Given Topics effectively on selected Argumentative or Expository Topics

Play fair: It’s important to avoiding upsetting your opponent during an argument; that is if you truly wish to have an civil argument. Resolve that no matter how upset he or she makes you, you will not say the one thing you know would push the argument over the edge.

Attack ideas, not the person they’re attached to: When you argue with someone, you should remember to only attack that person’s ideas, not the person themselves. That means you shouldn’t call the person stupid for thinking what they think, and you shouldn’t devolve to attacks on their physical appearance either.

Admit when you are wrong: When you make a mistake, admit it. Admit that you misunderstood or were misinformed. Being wrong doesn’t make you a lesser person but admitting you’re wrong does make you the bigger person.

Be open to new ideas: The best way to argue positively is to be open to new ideas. You don’t want to be wrong in an argument again, do you? Open yourself to the possibility of a better way of thinking or new, fascinating information.

Make your opponent feel smart. When you make people feel stupid, that makes them shut down and tends to quickly lead an argument nowhere. Make them feel smart and you’ll have an easier time turning the argument in your favor.

Use evidence tailored to the argument and audience: Evidence from reliable sources that specifically supports and deals with what you’re arguing about can be one of the easiest ways to win an argument. You should also tailor the type of evidence you use to what kind of person they are, using more logical or more emotional evidence based on what you think they’ll respond to best.

Complex Sentence Structures

A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. An independent clause (unlike a dependent clause) can stand alone as a sentence. In other words, a complex sentence contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence and makes a complete thought and a dependent clause cannot stand alone, even though it has a subject and a verb.

Examples of Complex Sentences

Below are examples of complex sentences-

•  

• Stay in the bath until the phone rings.
• The car swerved to miss Mrs Jackson, who had slipped off the pavement.
• Both the cockroach and the bird would get along very well without us, although the cockroach would miss us most.
• Leave while you can.
• When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong. (Arthur C. Clarke)

(This is two complex sentences.)

The Four Types of Sentence Structures

A complex sentence is one of four main sentence structures, all of which are shown below. In these examples, the independent clauses are shaded.

A Complex Sentence. A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. For example:

• The human brain never stops working until you stand up to speak in public.

A Compound Sentence. A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. For example:

• I always wanted to be somebody, but I should have been more specific. (Jane Wagner)

A Simple Sentence. A simple sentence has just one independent clause. For example:

• Curiosity killed the cat.

A Compound-Complex Sentence.  A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. For example:

• I stopped believing in Santa Claus when he asked for my autograph in a department store, but I still want to believe in him.

How to Summarize by Answering Questions after Reading  a Passage

Summarizing teaches students how to discern the most important ideas in a text, how to ignore irrelevant information, and how to integrate the central ideas in a meaningful way. Teaching students to summarize improves their memory for what is read. Summarization strategies can be used in almost every content area. Below are tips on how to summarize by answering questions after reading a passage-

1. First and foremost, read the passage carefully.
2. Use a pencil to highlight or underline what you take to be the main point of the original text, or make notes in the margins or on another sheet of paper.
3. If you’re summarizing an entire essay, outline the writer’s argument.
4. Identify the following- the main ideas are, the crucial details necessary for supporting the ideas, what information is irrelevant or unnecessary
5. Have them use key words or phrases to identify the main points from the text.

 Exercise

1. Briefly explain what you understand by an argumentative essay.
2. How can you effectively argue any given topic?
3. Define a complex sentence and give five examples other than the ones already given in the lesson.
4. What are the four types of sentence structure that you know?

Differentiation between British and American Spellings of Common Words

Introduction British English is more popular in Nigeria compared to American because of our colonial heritage. As a matter of fact, for academic purposes, Nigeria officially speaks and write British. Yet, some people (especially the youth) often confuse British and American English by using them together even in the same sentences. The truth however is that there are major differences between Standard British English and Standard American English especially in the areas of spelling, vocabulary and pronunciation.

Here is an overview of the main differences between British and American spellings:

Endings change to or colour > color
BRITISH Armour Armoury Behaviour Candour Clamour Colour Demeanour Endeavour Favourite Flavour Glamour Harbour Honour Humour Labour Neighbour Odour Rancour Rigour Rumour Saviour Savour Savoury Splendour Valour Vapour Vigour	AMERICAN Armor Armory Behavior Candor Clamor Color Demeanor Endeavor Favorite Flavor Glamor Harbor Honor Humor Labor Neighbor Odor Rancor Rigor Rumor Savior Savor Savory Splendor Valor Vapor Vgor

re endings change to theatre > theater
BRITISH Amphitheatre Calibre Centimetre Centre Fibre Kilometre Litre Louvre Lustre Manoeuvre Meagre Metre Millimetre Sabre Sceptre Sombre Spectre Theatre	AMERICAN Amphitheater Caliber Centimeter Center Fiber Kilometer Liter Louver Luster Maneuver Meager Meter Millimeter Saber Scepter Somber Specter Theater
Note: These words are spelled with -re in both Britain and the USA: Acre Massacre Mediocre Ogre

ogue endings change to og catalogue > catalog
BRITISH Analogue Dialogue Catalogue Epilogue Monologue Prologue Travelogue	AMERICAN Analog Dialog Catalog Epilog Monolog Prolog Travelog

l endings do not double in US spellings traveller > traveler
BRISTISH cancelled counsellor equalled fuelling fuelled grovelling jeweller jewellery levelled libelled marvellous modelling panelled quarrelling revelled woollen	AMERICAN canceled counselor equaled fueling fueled groveling jeweler jewelry or jewelery leveled libeled marvelous modeling paneled quarreling reveled woolen
Some British English words ending in one l may have doublell in the USA spelling:
appal distil enrol enthral fulfil instil skilful wilful	appall distill enroll enthrall fulfill instill skillful willful

ae and oe words change to e encyclopaedia > encyclopedia
BRITISH diarrhoea oestrogen foetus manoeuvre mementoes anaemia caesarean gynaecology haemorrhage leukaemia palaeontology paediatric	AMERICAN diarrhea estrogen fetus maneuver mementos anemia cesarean gynecology hemorrhage leukemia paleontology pediatric

ise endings change to ize apologise > apologize		Some words are the same in both countries:
BRITISH appetiser authorise capitalise characterise civilise colonise criticise dramatise emphasise equalise mobilise naturalise organise popularise realise recognise satirise standardise symbolise vaporise ************** analyse paralyse	AMERICAN appetizer authorize capitalize characterize civilize colonize criticize dramatize emphasize equalize mobilize naturalize organize popularize realize recognize satirize standardize symbolize vaporize ************** analyze paralyze	size capsize prize seize ************** advise surprise advertise
Note: Some British spellers do use the -ize ending – either is correct – but the American spelling is almost always -ize.

You may remember these -ce and -se words earlier. In some of them, the spelling depends on whether the word is a noun or a verb.
BRITISH defence	AMERICAN defense
offence	offense
pretence	pretense
vice (workbench tool)	vise
licence (as a noun): I’ve lost my driving licence.	license (noun and verb)
license (as a verb) is the same in both countries: He is licensed to drive large trucks
practise (as a verb): I practise the piano every day.	practice (noun and verb)
practice (as a noun) is the same in both countries: Get some practice in these words.

Some more examples of spelling differences:

Spelling change
ph > f	sulphate  sulphide  sulphur	sulfate  sulfide  sulfur
ugh > f or w	draught  plough	draft  plow
y > i	tyre (on a wheel)  gybe	tire  jibe
ou > o	mould  moult  smoulder	mold  molt  smolder
mme > m	programme	program
que > ck	cheque (money) chequer (game)	check checker
ge > g	acknowledgement ageing judgement	acknowledgment aging judgment
Miscellaneous:	aluminium	aluminum
	axe	ax
	cosy	cozy
	kerb (edge of road)	curb
	furore	furor
	grey	gray
	carat	(gold) karat
	liquorice	licorice
	moustache	mustache
	nought	naught
	pyjamas	pajamas
	sceptic	skeptic
	phial	vial
	whisky	whiskey

The lists above show the most common spellings that are different in Britain and the USA. With the growth of the Internet, it is likely that the American spellings will become the most used. However, for all your academic purposes, you are advised to use British spellings.

Exercise

1. What do you understand by British and American English?
2. What are the major differences between British and American English?