• Meaning and Importance of Agriculture
• Subsistence and Commercial Agriculture
• Problems of Agricultural Development in Nigeria and Possible Solutions
• Roles of Government and Non-Governmental Organizations in Agricultural Development
• ROLES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE
• Agro Allied Industries and Their Relationship With Agriculture
• Agricultural Reforms
• Land and Its Uses
• Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production
• Classification of Crops

Meaning and Importance of Agriculture

WEEK 1

Agricultural Science S.S.S 1 First Term

Meaning of Agriculture

The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words ‘ager’ meaning field, and ‘cultural’ meaning cultivation. By this statement, agriculture means field cultivation. However, this is not a complete definition of agriculture since agriculture also has to do with animal production. Agriculture can be defined as the art and science that deals with cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals for man’s use.

Importance of Agriculture to three groups of People

The importance of agriculture can be grouped into three categories:

A. To an individual or farmer

1.   Provision of food

2.   Provision of materials for shelter

3.   Provision of materials for clothing

4.   Employment for the working population

5.   Generation of income for farmers.

B. To the society or community

1.   Development of towns

2.   Provision of facilities for recreation and tourism

3.   Provision of market for industrial goods

C.To the nation

1.   Sources of foreign exchange earnings

2.   Generation of revenues

3.   Provision of raw materials for industries

Scope or Branches of Agriculture

This simply means areas of specialization in agriculture, which includes the following:

1.    Animal science / animal production / animal husbandry / animal nutrition

2.    Veterinary medicine / animal health

3.    Soil science

4.    Crop science / agronomy / crop pathology / entomology

5.    Food science / food technology

6.    Horticulture

7.    Forestry and wild life conservation

8.    Wildlife and eco-tourism

9.    Wood product

10. Apiculture (bee keeping)

11. Heli-culture (snail farming)

12. Fishery

13. Agricultural engineering and mechanization

14. Agricultural economics and farm management

15. Agricultural extension and education

16. Agric-business education and farm management

17. Agricultural technology

General Importance of Agriculture

For decades, agriculture has been associated with production of essential food crops. At present, agriculture above and beyond farming includes forestry, dairy, fruit cultivation, poultry, bee keeping, mushroom, arbitrary, etc. Today, processing, marketing and distribution of crops and livestock products etc. are all acknowledged as part of current agriculture.Thus, agriculture could be referred to as the production, processing, promotion and distribution agricultural products. Agriculture plays a critical role in the entire life of a given economy. Agriculture is the backbone of economic system of a given country. In addition to providing food and raw material, agriculture also provides employment opportunities to very large percentage of population. Below are the importances of agriculture:

Source of Livelihood

The main source livelihood of many people is agriculture. Approximately 70 % of the people directly rely on agriculture as a mean of living. This high percentage in agriculture is as a result of none development of non-agricultural activities to absorb the fast growing population. However, most people in developed countries do not engage in agriculture.

Contribution to National revenue

Agriculture is the main source of national income for most developing countries. However, for the developed countries, agriculture contributes a smaller per cent age to their national income.

 Supply of Food as well as Fodder

Agricultural sector provides fodder for domestic animals .Cow provides people with milk which is a form of protective food. Moreover, livestock also meets people’s food requirements.

Significance to the International Trade

Agricultural products like sugar, tea, rice, spices, tobacco, coffee etc. constitute the major items of exports of countries that rely on agriculture. If there is smooth development practice of agriculture, imports are reduced while export increases considerably. This helps to reduce countries unfavorable balance of payments as well as saving foreign exchange. This amount may be well used to import other essential inputs, machinery, raw-material, and other infrastructure that is helpful for the support of country’s economic development.

Marketable Surplus

The growth of agricultural sector contributes to marketable surplus. Many people engage in manufacturing, mining as well as other non- agricultural sector as the nation develops. All these individuals rely on food production that they might meet from the nation’s marketable surplus. As agricultural sector development takes place, production increases and this leads to expansion of marketable surplus. This may be exported to other nations.

Source of Raw Material

The main source of raw materials to major industries such as cotton and jute fabric, sugar, tobacco, edible as well as non-edible oils is agriculture. Moreover, many other industries such as processing of fruits as well as vegetables and rice husking get their raw material mainly from agriculture.

Significance in Transport

Bulks of agricultural products are transported by railways and roadways from farm to factories. Mostly, internal trade is in agricultural products. Moreover, the revenue of the government, to a larger extent, relies on the success of agricultural sector.

Foreign Exchange Resources

The nation’s export trade depends largely on agricultural sector. For example, agricultural commodities such as jute, tobacco, spices, oilseeds, raw cotton, tea as well as coffee accounts for approximately 18 % of the entire value of exports of a country. This demonstrates that agriculture products also continue to be important source of earning a country foreign exchange.

Great Employment Opportunities

Construction of irrigation schemes, drainage system as well as other such activities in the agricultural sector is important as it provides larger employment opportunities. Agriculture sector provides more employment opportunities to the labor force that reduce the high rate of unemployment in developing countries caused by the fast growing population.

Economic Development

Since agriculture employs many people it contributes to economic development. As a result, the national income level as well as people’s standard of living is improved. The fast rate of development in agriculture sector offers progressive outlook as well as increased motivation for development. Hence, it aids to create good atmosphere for overall economic development of a country. Therefore, economic development relies on the agricultural growth rate.

Source of Saving

Development in agriculture may also increase savings. The rich farmers we see today started saving particularly after green revolution. This surplus quantity may be invested further in the agriculture sector to develop the sector.

Food Security

A stable agricultural sector ensures a nation of food security. The main requirement of any country is food security. Food security prevents malnourishment that has traditionally been believed to be one of the major problems faced by the developing countries. Most countries rely on agricultural products as well as associated industries for their main source of income.

Assessment

1. Api culture has to do with ______

2. Heliculture means ______

3. What part of Agriculture deals with enlightening farmers on the use of technology ____

4. _____ is the pratice of garden management and cultivation

 5. Explain extensively two importance of Agriculture

 6. Define Agriculture?

Answers

1. Bees – rearing of bees
2. Snail farming
3. Agricultural extension and education
4. Horticulture
5. a.   Provision of food b.  Generation of revenues
6. The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words ‘ager’ meaning field, and ‘cultural’ meaning cultivation.

Subsistence and Commercial Agriculture

Agricultural Science SS 1

Week: 2

Topic: Subsistence and Commercial Agriculture

Subsistence Agriculture

This can be defined as a system of farming whereby a farmer cultivates crops and rears animals in order to produce food for consumption of himself and his family only.

Characteristics of Subsistence Agriculture

1.  It is practiced by peasant farmers.

2.  It involves small plot of land.

3.  It involves the use of crude tools.

4.  It employs unskilled labour.

5.  There is no specialization.

6.  Food crops are produced.

7.  Does not involve any marketing.

Commercial Agriculture

Commercial agriculture is defined as the type of agriculture which is concerned with the production of food, animals and cash crops in large quantities for sale.

Characteristics of Commercial Agriculture

1.  It involves large / huge capital.

2.  It employs skilled labour.

3.  Cash crops are produced.

4.  Requires organized market.

5.  Records are kept.

6.  Mono cropping is practiced.

7.  There is specialization.

Differences between Subsistence and Commercial Agriculture
S/N	Subsistence Agricultural	Commercial Agriculture
1.	Yields or returns are low.	Yields or returns are high.
2.	Pests and diseases are not controlled	Pests and diseases are controlled.
3.	Produce is mainly for family consumption.	Produce is mainly for sale or export.
4.	Low environment degradation.	High environment degradation.
5.	No need for storage and processing facilities.	Storage processing facilities are required.

ASSESSMENT

1. What is the difference between Subsistence and Commercial farming?
2. Mention 3 characteristics of commercial Agriculture

ANSWER

1. Subsistence farming can be defined as a system of farming whereby a farmer cultivates crops and rears animals in order to produce food for consumption of himself and his family only while Commercial farming is defined as the type of farming which is concerned with the production of food, animals and cash crops in large quantities for sale.
2.  

• It involves large / huge capital.
• It employs skilled labour.
• Cash crops are produced.

Problems of Agricultural Development in Nigeria and Possible Solutions

Agricultural Science SS 1

Week: 3

Topic: Problems of Agricultural Development in Nigeria and Possible Solutions

Introduction 

Nigeria is one of the most highly blessed nations in Africa. That she has not been able to solve, even her own problems of food and agricultural development is a matter of very great concerns.  Anyhow, if you would like to be on the full know of the major problems of food production in Nigeria, and then you have come to the right source.

1. Land Tenure Problem – Land is needed for agriculture and many lands in Nigeria are owned via land tenure. Many Nigerians who want to go into agriculture gets discouraged as a result of the laws embedded in Land tenure systems in Nigeria.
2. Unavailability of Basic amenities – Many of the basic amenities needed for agricultural practices are not available to farmers and these have hindered the development of agriculture to a large extent. These things may seem simple and mundane but they help farmers and other farm workers and also they help prevent the migration of people to cities. Examples of these amenities are: television viewing centres, good roads, electricity, telephone, standard schools. functional health centres etc. Availability of these amenities will prevent low agricultural production, migration of people to cities and unemployment of able bodied persons.
3. Poverty – In today’s Nigeria, one of the major problems of Agricultural development is poverty. On the other hand, one of the simplest and a doubtless truth that you can easily know about Nigeria is the fact that over 75% of her rural dwellers are full-time farmers. Another doubtless truth that you can also discover there is that Nigeria’s present inability to, even solve her own problems of food and agriculture, is not as a result of her peoples’ laziness; or say a matter of the nation being naturally unblessed. Nigerian farmers and Nigerians in general are really hard-working and industrious. A very great variety of delicious species of organic foods, fruits, vegetables and cash-crops abound in the country. In fact, the nation is so highly blessed, and there are very large acres of fertile agricultural lands all around the country.
4. Ignorance – Nigeria of today is a country where agriculture is still greatly and relatively undermined; and or even over-looked as a mere “back-yard business “. Some Nigerian youths even regard farming as:” an odd job that is meant only for the illiterate rural people “. In the eyes of some of Nigeria’s wealthy class, farming is ignorantly underrated or abhorred as: “poor peoples’ job “. The very worst is that the governments in Nigeria are, pretentiously doing very little or nothing in terms of solving the nation’s food and agricultural problems.
5. Use of Manual/Crude Farm Tools and Methods – Do you know that the average Nigerian farmer is still making use of only the same out-dated manual farm tools – like cutlass and hoe – as their fore-fathers used since many centuries ago? Do you also know that instead of using some affordable modern agricultural techniques or simple machines; the farmers in that part of the world have changelessly, adhered to various archaic agricultural methods and practices that were copied from their ancestors? In short, their use of these kinds of archaic and out-dated tools and techniques constitutes a very great set-back in the country’s food and agricultural out-puts.
6. Poor Financing – This is another major factor hindering the development of Agriculture in Nigeria. Due to lack of proper financing, many farmers are limited to subsistence farming instead of venturing into commercial farming and thus are not able to achieve the full potential of Agriculture. Lack of finance makes the farmers poor and they are  unable to secure collateral they can use to obtain loans. They are not able to access credit facilities and thus cannot grow in this area.
7. Lack of Food storage facilities –  Many delicious and juicy fruits, vegetables, and cash-crops are largely produced from Nigeria’s local farming communities. But, do you know that a very great percentage of these delicious organic farm produce often get damaged and, or wasted before they reach their final consumers? In this kind of a situation, one of the major problems that are facing the helpless local farmers there is lack of adequate food storage or processing facilities.
8. Lack of modern farm machines /techniques – Another major problem of Nigeria’s food and agriculture is lack of modern farm machines or techniques. As I stated earlier, the farmers in Nigeria are still making use of ancient agricultural tools / techniques; whilst there are low-cost modern farm machines / techniques out there for use as better substitutes.
9. Lack of scientific & technological know-how – In Nigeria, scientific and technological know-how is relatively very low. Many schools here in Nigeria do not even have science laboratories. Hence, a great majority of students there rather theorize sciences than practicalize them. In fact, this problem of Nigeria’s under-development in science and technology often leave the country to depend largely on importation. And this equally, is part of the major problems and challenges of the country’s food and agricultural developments.
10. Disorganisation and Unaccountability – Organization and accountability is one of the basics of better and successful management. But, till this age of modernization and civilization, Nigeria is still internally disorganized. She lacks, even a valid and a well-organized documentations of her citizens or properties or marriages or births or deaths. In the same vein, a majority of farms there in Nigeria lacks organization or records and accountability. Some farmers there are merely planting without any sort or kind of a farm records or organization; or measurements or, at least; an account for an easier identification of the possible reasons behind their agricultural gains or losses.
11. Impact of Imported Foods – Nigeria is a net importer of food. The country does not produce enough food to meet the demand of its people. This produces a lot of problems with regard to agricultural development. Generally, there is less incentive for local farmers to grow local foods, when cheaper, more palatable foods are imported. This forces local farmers to reduce prices, which reduces the income generated by the farm. The consequence is decreased farm production. To combat the effects of imported food on development, several initiatives are suggested, including providing farmers with micro-credit that is subsidized and increasing tariffs on imported food.
12. Lack of Investment – The problems of agriculture in Nigeria are also caused by a lack of investment. The government budget for agriculture is not enough to meet the challenges. International aid groups have supplemented the funding of the government, but most of the funds don’t reach the local farmer.
13. Lack of Leadership and Neo-colonialism – One of the most serious of all the major problems of food and agriculture in Nigeria is lack of leadership. Mismanagement; corruption and embezzlement of public funds are very common within Nigeria’s government officials. And as you know, patriotism; trust, honesty; organization and careful management has often led the
    success and prosperity of modern man.
14. Illiteracy – The greatest number of dedicated full-time farmers in Nigeria can neither read nor write. The local farmers there are even as uninformed as they lack modern agricultural education. The climax of illiteracy there, is Nigeria’s total negligence and, or her non-usage of native languages in the nation’s pursuits for modern education. For in this modern world, people that still studies in foreign languages have not really started learning. And this level of illiteracy and unawareness do often constitute some serious set-backs, even in Nigeria’s food production efforts.
15. Soil Infertility –  The problems of agriculture in Nigeria begin with the soil. Most of the farmable land in Nigeria contains soil that is low to medium in productivity. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), with proper management, the soil can achieve medium to good productivity. The main problem that affects soil fertility is soil erosion. Wind erosion, in particular, is quite damaging. Overtime, strong winds expose seedlings and crop root systems by blowing away loose, fine grain soil particles. Another effect is the accumulation of soil particles in drifts, which can cover crops. Also, wind erosion changes the texture of the soil. The particles responsible for water retention and fertility, such as clay, silt, and organic matter are generally lost, leaving behind a sandy soil. Wind erosion can be greatly reduced by planting trees near farming areas. The trees will absorb most of the wind, which will prevent the loss of soil particles. Another type of erosion that affects fertility is water erosion. There are two types of water erosion: splash erosion and rill erosion. Splash erosion occurs when rain drops impact the soil, and rill erosion occurs when channels of water carry soil downstream. Water erosion is reduced when the soil is covered with a canopy. Also, improving the soil structure by adding organic matter greatly reduces water erosion.

Possible Solutions to Agricultural Development Problems

1. Good Leadership – One of the ways to solve  Nigeria’s Food and Agricultural Problems is by having a Honest-Minded, Patriotic and Caring Leadership whose utmost priority is for Nigeria to be able to produce its own food instead of importing always. For the over-all Nucleus of Nigeria’s decades in problems is LEADERSHIP.  Any real and lasting solution to the problems of Food and Agriculture in Nigeria can only be Possible under an uncorrupt and  caring leadership. Situations where public funds  meant for other things are embezzled only add to the problems of the nation.
2. Agricultural Education of Farmers – Government should introduce a FREE and Affordable Modern Agricultural Education Programs for Farmers in Nigeria’s Rural Communities. Farmers should be enlightened on the use of modern equipment and technologies. Using this kind of Agricultural Education Programs can even help to Organize the Local Farmers into Reachable Farmers’ Co-Operative Union.
3. Provision of Mechanized Farming Equipment -Farm machines and simple farm equipment is another powerful solution to her problems of food and agriculture. This is very important because the local farmers there in Nigeria are still using crude equipment such as cutlass and hoe for Agricultural practices. Government can give farmers this equipment at a subsidized rate. Examples of such equipment are – Tractor, Plough, Harrow etc
4. Funding – The Average Nigerian Local Farmers are not just facing the hardships and challenges of poverty,  they also have little or no funds to expand their farm potentials. Agricultural funds really need to be made available for these farmers as this is still part of the most effective solutions to the nation’s food and agricultural development. Another plus to funding is to provide these farmers with Hybrid seeds and simple agricultural machines at subsidized rates.

ASSESSMENT

1. Discuss in details 4 problems of Agricultural development
2. State 2 possible solutions to Agricultural development problems.

ANSWER

1.  

• Land Tenure Problem – Land is needed for agriculture and many lands in Nigeria are owned via land tenure. Many Nigerians who want to go into agriculture gets discouraged as a result of the laws embedded in Land tenure systems in Nigeria.
• Unavailability of Basic amenities – Many of the basic amenities needed for agricultural practices are not available to farmers and these have hindered the development of agriculture to a large extent. These things may seem simple and mundane but they help farmers and other farm workers and also they help prevent the migration of people to cities. Examples of these amenities are: television viewing centres, good roads, electricity, telephone, standard schools. functional health centres etc. Availability of these amenities will prevent low agricultural production, migration of people to cities and unemployment of able bodied persons.
• Poverty – In today’s Nigeria, one of the major problems of Agricultural development is poverty. On the other hand, one of the simplest and a doubtless truth that you can easily know about Nigeria is the fact that over 75% of her rural dwellers are full-time farmers. Another doubtless truth that you can also discover there is that Nigeria’s present inability to, even solve her own problems of food and agriculture, is not as a result of her peoples’ laziness; or say a matter of the nation being naturally unblessed. Nigerian farmers and Nigerians in general are really hard-working and industrious. A very great variety of delicious species of organic foods, fruits, vegetables and cash-crops abound in the country. In fact, the nation is so highly blessed, and there are very large acres of fertile agricultural lands all around the country.
• Ignorance – Nigeria of today is a country where agriculture is still greatly and relatively undermined; and or even over-looked as a mere “back-yard business “. Some Nigerian youths even regard farming as:” an odd job that is meant only for the illiterate rural people “. In the eyes of some of Nigeria’s wealthy class, farming is ignorantly underrated or abhorred as: “poor peoples’ job “. The very worst is that the governments in Nigeria are, pretentiously doing very little or nothing in terms of solving the nation’s food and agricultural problems.

2.

• Good Leadership – One of the ways to solve  Nigeria’s Food and Agricultural Problems is by having a Honest-Minded, Patriotic and Caring Leadership whose utmost priority is for Nigeria to be able to produce its own food instead of importing always. For the over-all Nucleus of Nigeria’s decades in problems is LEADERSHIP.  Any real and lasting solution to the problems of Food and Agriculture in Nigeria can only be Possible under an uncorrupt and  caring leadership. Situations where public funds  meant for other things are embezzled only add to the problems of the nation.
• Agricultural Education of Farmers – Government should introduce a FREE and Affordable Modern Agricultural Education Programs for Farmers in Nigeria’s Rural Communities. Farmers should be enlightened on the use of modern equipment and technologies. Using this kind of Agricultural Education Programs can even help to Organize the Local Farmers into Reachable Farmers’ Co-Operative Union.

Roles of Government and Non-Governmental Organizations in Agricultural Development

Agricultural Science SS 1 First Term

Week: 4

Topic: Roles of Government and Non-Governmental Organizations in Agricultural Development

The roles of government in agricultural production include;

1. Formation of and execution of policies

A key role of the government is the formulation and execution of plans, as well as defining the aims and objectives of the agricultural sectors of the economy.

2. Provision of physical infrastructure

The building of roads and bridges which forms a link to markets, provision of electricity, pipe –borne water, crop storage facilities and other physical infrastructure which aid agricultural production, directly or indirectly.

3. Granting of loans, credits and subsidies

Loans, credits and subsidies are continually needed for agricultural production. Loans are money lent to farmers with the signed agreement that they will pay back at later dates. Credits refer to seeds, agro chemicals and materials which farmers are allowed to take immediate possession of with the understanding that they will make more repayments at later dates. Subsidies are money granted on behalf of farmers to partly pay the costs of certain agricultural inputs.

4. Setting-up of schemes, bodies and other official organs which aid agriculture

Various agricultural programmes such as farm settlement schemes and agricultural development projects and bodies such as marketing boards, as well as organs such as agro service centres are established to render a wide range of services to agriculture.

Other roles of government are; Provision of social infrastructure, harnessing of natural resources to service agriculture, solving agricultural problems of multidimensional nature etc.

Government Agricultural Programmes

1. Farm settlement schemes

Farm settlement schemes are government projects where large tracts of land are exclusively reserved for farming. The fundamental aim of farm settlement schemes is to provide opportunity for settlers to farm without distraction, allow beneficial interaction and permit them to be able to jointly solve mutual problems encountered in farming.

2. Co- operative Farming

A farmer’s cooperative society is a formal association of farmers existing for the purpose of mutual co operation among themselves in matters relating to farming.

3. Farm Insurance Scheme

The farm insurance scheme is a means of protecting the investment of farmers in the farms.

4. Operation Feed the Nation

The federal government of Nigeria which was in power between 1976 and 1979 executed a programme called Operation Feed the Nation (OFN).

Other government agricultural programmes are; Green Revolution (GR) and River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAS).

Non-Governmental Organization

Organizations which are not created or controlled by governments or business concerns are referred to as non – governmental organization (NGO). Some NGOs whose activities have been quite remarkable in recent years are;

1. West African Rice Development Agency (WARDA)

The West Africa Rice Development Agency (WARDA) is an information research organization with headquarters in Bouake, Cote d’Ivoire. The mandate of WARDA is to improve the capability of the West African region in rice production. This organization conducts researches aimed at developing better rice varieties and improving the management of natural resources in rice production.

2. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is based in Ibadan, Nigeria. IITA conducts researches in various aspects of crop husbandry, plant breeding, plant protection, soil science and to some extent, agricultural engineering. Its main crops of focus are maize and cassava.

3. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) formally known as International Livestock Center for Africa (ILAC) is headquartered in Addis – Ababa, Ethiopia. Overall, ILRI investigates livestock production systems in Africa with emphasis on ruminant livestock. It aims at improving the capability of Africans in the production of meat, milk and other animal products.

4. International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT)

This is based in Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, in the Asian nation of India. The mandate of ICRISAT is to improve the quantity and reliability of food production in the semi-arid tropics.

ASSESSMENT

1. State 4 roles of Government in Agricultural Development?
2. List 2 Government Agricultural Programs?
3. List 2 Non-Governmental Agricultural Programs?

ANSWER

1.  

• Formation of and execution of policies
• Provision of physical infrastructure
• Granting of loans, credits and subsidies
• Setting-up of schemes, bodies and other official organs which aid agriculture

2.

• Co- operative Farming
• Operation Feed the Nation

3.

• West African Rice Development Agency (WARDA)
• International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

ROLES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

WEEK 5

Agricultural Science. S.S.S 1 First Term

TOPIC: ROLES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

Introduction

Science and Technology has played an important role in the development of agriculture in many countries. These roles are:

1. Implements and Machinery – Science and technology has aided the development of implements and machineries such as tractor, harrower, milking machines, seed planters, shellers, planters to replace crude tools such as hoe, cutlass, rake and shovel. These implements help farm operations to be easier and faster.
2. Pests and Disease control – Through the aid of Science and Technology, chemicals like insecticides, pesticides, avicides, fungicides, nematicides and fumigants have been developed to combat against problems caused by pests and other disease causing pathogens such as bacteria, virus et.c
3. Animal and Plant Breeding – Various breeds of animals and varieties of plants have been developed through the application of genetics and cross breeding. As a result of these, plants with exceptional characters are now developed. Plants and animals now exhibit early maturity, high yield resistance to pest and diseases and other traits specifically required by the farmer.
4. Animal Nutrition – Feeds have been formulated to meet the nutritional demands of animals in order to enhance rapid growth and maturity.
5. Transport Network –  The transport network has been developed through the construction of roads, railways, waterways, ship and airways. All these transportation channels have aided the movement of farm produce from rural to urban areas at a great speed including exportation.
6. Processing Machines – Science has helped to develop special machines like incubators, milking machines, grinders, millers, shellers which have made the processing of food easier and faster within a short period.
7. Weather and Climate – With the help of Science and Technology, Farmers have been able to understand the weather and climatic condition of their area, and by so doing, helps them to understand the type of crop to be grown at a particular season in a particular area.
8. Development of Fertilizer – The development and application of fertilizers have helped to increase crop yields. Through the help of science and technology, farmers have been able to know and determine soil fertility level before planting. They are also able to determine nutrient deficiencies, organic matter content, water holding capacity e.t.c and the type of crop that can do well on a particular soil
9. Farm Building and Structure – Technology has helped the farmer in designing and constructing farm houses, farm structures like poultry houses, pig pens and cattle pens for livestock animals. Farm storage structures like barns and silos are equally built.
10. Development of Irrigation Practices – Science and Technology has also helped to develop irrigation practices in which water is applied to the soil artificially, especially during the dry season.
11. Provision of Storage Facilities – Science and Technology has also develop storage facilities for the preservation of harvested products. e.g. Silos
12. Development of Farm Management System – Improved farm management systems have also been developed with the aid of science and technology e.g crop rotation and mixed farming.

ASSESSMENT

1. Explain 5 roles of Science and Technology in Agriculture

ANSWER

1.  

• Implements and Machinery – Science and technology has aided the development of implements and machineries such as tractor, harrower, milking machines, seed planters, shellers, planters to replace crude tools such as hoe, cutlass, rake and shovel. These implements help farm operations to be easier and faster.
• Pests and Disease control – Through the aid of Science and Technology, chemicals like insecticides, pesticides, avicides, fungicides, nematicides and fumigants have been developed to combat against problems caused by pests and other disease causing pathogens such as bacteria, virus et.c
• Animal and Plant Breeding – Various breeds of animals and varieties of plants have been developed through the application of genetics and cross breeding. As a result of these, plants with exceptional characters are now developed. Plants and animals now exhibit early maturity, high yield resistance to pest and diseases and other traits specifically required by the farmer.
• Animal Nutrition – Feeds have been formulated to meet the nutritional demands of animals in order to enhance rapid growth and maturity.
• Transport Network –  The transport network has been developed through the construction of roads, railways, waterways, ship and airways. All these transportation channels have aided the movement of farm produce from rural to urban areas at a great speed including exportation.

Agro Allied Industries and Their Relationship With Agriculture

WEEK 6

Agricultural Science. S.S.S 1 First Term

TOPIC: Agro Allied Industries and Their Relationship With Agriculture

Introduction

Agro-Allied industries are industries which depends on Agriculture for their raw-materials so as to operate successfully in the production of finished goods that are useful to animals and humans. They are industries whose primary raw materials are agricultural products. Agriculture provides vital resources and raw materials to the industrial sector.

Relationship Between Agriculture and Industry

1. Agriculture provides food for industrial workers.
2. Industries produce machinery and equipment for agricultural uses e.g. tractors, ploughs, cutlass, hoes, etc.
3. Agriculture can provide market for industrial products e.g. farm machinery, chemicals, fertilizers, etc.
4. Agriculture and industry compete for labour.
5. Rise in agriculture income due to good management can also bring about good development in the industrial sector.
6. Industries provide a large range of products that the farmer wants to buy.
7. Agriculture provides raw materials for industries.
8. Industries produce agro-chemicals for agriculture uses e.g. pesticide, fertilizers, vaccines, herbicides, etc.
9. Industries provide storage facilities for agricultural produce like milk, fruits, meat stored in silos, cans.
10. Agriculture also allows a shift of factors of production like land to industries.

Agro-based Industries	Raw Materials Used
Beverage Industry	Coffee,cocoa and tea
Soap industries	Oil seeds/oil
Feed mill	Cereal and grains
Tyre industries	Rubber latex
Sugar industries	Sugar cane
Paper industries	Pulp wood
Starch industry	Cassava and maize
Breweries	Cereals
Textile and Gunnery	Cotton
Tobacco industry	Tobacco leaves
Fruit canning industry	fruits
Oil milling industry	Oil seed

ASSESSMENT

1. What is the relationship between Agriculture and Industry?
2. Mention 5 agro-industries and their products.

ANSWER

1.  

A.  Rise in agriculture income due to good management can also bring about good development in the industrial sector.
B. Industries provide a large range of products that the farmer wants to buy.
C. Agriculture provides raw materials for industries.

2.

Agro-based Industries	Raw Materials Used
Beverage Industry	Coffee,cocoa and tea
Soap industries	Oil seeds/oil
Feed mill	Cereal and grains
Tyre industries	Rubber latex
Sugar industries	Sugar cane

Agricultural Reforms

WEEK 7

Agricultural Science S.S.S 1 First Term

TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL LAWS AND REFORMS

Introduction

This area is concerned with the laws guiding the acquisition and utilization of agricultural lands.

LAND TENURE SYSTEMS IN WEST AFRICA
This is the system whereby certain rights are assigned to the use of particular pieces of land. In Nigeria, rights to the use of land can be defined as the systems of land ownership by individual or by status or Act of parliament. Land tenure can also be defined as the systems of land ownership by individual or community either for temporary or permanent use.

It can be broadly classified into
1. Communal ownership
2. Inheritance
3. Individual
4. Leasehold
5. Rent
6. Gift
7. Free hold
8. Tenant at government will.

Communal Land Tenure System: This is the system where land belongs to community. The community may be made up of families, tribe, clans, villages, etc. the head of the community can be a Chief, an Oba, Obi, Emir, Obong or a Baale. The head of the community decides the basis of sharing out land. Every adult (especially male) member of the community is allocated a piece of land. Land is usually shared for farming purpose at the beginning of each planting season.

Advantages
1. Every adult member of the community an acquire land and each person has full
right to the land allotted to him.
2. It is cheap to acquire as no cost is involved.
3. It is ideal for large scale farming.
4. Farmers’ cooperatives may be easily organized.

Disadvantages
1. Non-indigenes of the community cannot acquire land or have access to it.
2. Permanent crop cultivation is not accepted because land is allotted for only a farming season.
3. Scale of land is not allowed.
4. Mechanized farming cannot be practiced without permission of the whole community.
5. Allotted land can be revoked by a new leader.
6. Land cannot be used as a collateral for loan except when the community approves it.
7. The area of land allotted depends upon the size of the population.
8. Unmarried women may not be allotted land.

Individual Land Tenure: This is a system of ownership where the land can be acquired by an individual either male or female.

Advantages
1. Male or female can acquire any size of land based on the financial resources available
2. Both permanent and arable crops can be cultivated.
3. The owner has authority as to how the land is used.
4. There is no discrimination as to tribe or state of origin in the process of acquiring land.
5. Land can be used as a collateral for loan.

Disadvantages
1. Only the rich may acquire land at certain areas.
2. Land acquired through this process may not be used for agricultural activity.
3. Land may be acquired in fragments

Inheritance Tenure System: This is a system where a piece of land can be acquired at the death of one’s parent, hence, land can also mean a system of transferring land from parents to offspring from one generation to another.

Advantages
1. This is the most readily available tenure system open to farmers.
2. Permanent plants can be cultivated e.g. oil palm, cocoa, rubber, kola, etc.
3. Land can be used as collateral in obtaining loan from banks.
4. Children yet unborn are provided for e.g. like in the Benin Empire where Oba’s children are provided for.
5. Legitimate and illegitimate children have access to land.

Disadvantages
1. It leads to land fragmentation i.e. small scattered portions of land.
2. Size of land allotted may not be suitable for commercial agriculture.
3. Sharing of land is not easy as bitterness may be generated among family members.
4. In some families, scale of land is not acceptable because this will deprive future generations of their inheritance.
5. Women are often not listed as the beneficiaries during land allocation except where the deceased has no male child.
6. Ownership is sometimes difficult to determine, especially in polygamous families where every first born male child is a head.

Leasehold Tenure System: This is a contract existing between a person called the leasor and another called the leasee for the lease of a piece of land for a specified period of years, which may be twenty-five years, fifty years or ninety-nine years. The leasee will exercise his right on the use and maintenance of the land for the period of lease.

Advantages
1. An agreed sum of money is paid for the period of lease.
2. It allows the farmer to have maximum use of land.
3. It is available for permanent crop cultivation.

Disadvantages
1. The farmer cannot develop the beyond the lease agreements terms.
2. Land on leases cannot serve as security for loans.
3. A lease agreement of less than fifty years is not ideal for permanent crop cultivation.

Gift Tenure System: This is a system in which a piece of land is given out by a person voluntarily to another for the good work done by that person. Gift land can be between individuals, government and her citizens or communities in an area.

Advantages
1. New owner can make maximum use of the land for production purpose.
2. Land on gift is irredeemable.
3. Permanent crops and keeping of animals are acceptable.
4. It can be used to source for loan from financial institutions.

Disadvantages
1. Land may be given out unwisely and this can cause serious disagreement between the offspring and the beneficiary.
2. Where land is given out by government and is not backed by proper documentation, it can be retrieved.
3. The true ownership can be challenged and revoked by a court order.

Rent Tenure System: This is a system whereby a tenant pays some amount for the period of using the land to a stated landlord. The period of rent is relatively very short compared to leasehold systems.

Advantages
1. It is ideal for food crop production.
2. The farmer can make the best use of land during the rent period.

Disadvantages
1. The landlord can revoke the tenancy when the rent period expires.
2. Since there is so much uncertainty as to the continuous use of land, the farmer cannot plan very well.
3. Land cannot be used as collateral for loan from financial institutions.
4. Development on land is very slow

Purchase or Freehold Tenure System: This is a system whereby a person pays a certain sum of money for the acquisition of a piece of land. The land now becomes the real property of the purchaser.

Advantages
1. It is a personal property and there can be used for both commercial, agricultural and permanent crop cultivation purpose.
2. Land can be used for the sourcing of loan from financial institutions.
3. Both male and female can acquire land provided the price is paid.
4. Animal husbandry is also very ideal.
5. There is a maximum use of land to increase production.

Disadvantages
1. Land may be expensive.
2. Size of fertile land may be too small.
3. Prospective farmers may not have access to the required land.
4. Farmers may fall into the hands of illegal sales agents (fraudsters) because the real owner may not be known.
5. Mechanization is not possible on small land holdings.

Tenants at Government Will: This system is where a piece of land is given out to farmers by the government by paying a stipulated amount of money. Any farmer using such land is at the mercy of the government that allocated the land.

Advantages
1. Poor and rich farmers can have access to land.
2. Women can be given land.
3. It is ideal for aggressive food production programme.
4. The land is cheap to acquire and period of grace is usually given before paying rent.

Disadvantages
1. Too much red tape (long bureaucracy), regulations and control.
2. The land can be revoked if the tenant fails to meet two to three installments.
3. Land cannot be used as a collateral for loan.
4. Permanent crops cannot be cultivated.

Assessment

Give the names of the tenure systems below

1. ____ is a system whereby a person pays a certain sum of money for the acquisition of a piece of land
2. ____ is a contract existing between a person called the leasor and another called the leasee for the lease of a piece of a piece of land for a specified period of years
3. ____ is a system where a piece of land can be acquired at the death of one’s parent
4. ____ is a system in which a piece of land is given out by a person voluntarily to another for the good work done by that person
5. ____ is a system whereby a tenant pays some amount for the period of using the land to a stated landlord

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Inheritance Tenure System

Answers

1. Purchase Tenure System
2. Lease hold Tenure System
3. Inheritance Tenure System
4. Gift Tenure System
5. Rent Tenure System

Land and Its Uses

WEEK 8

Agricultural Science S.S.S 1 First Term

TOPIC: LAND AND ITS USES

Introduction

From agricultural stand point, land is defined as the solid part of the earth surface in which agricultural activities can be practiced. Land like air and water is a free gift of nature.

Use of Land for Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Purposes
There are two schools of thoughts. They are the pedeathologists and edaphologists. The pedeathologists are concerned with land used for construction and other non-agricultural activities, while the edaphologists are interested in such lands used for agricultural activities. From the above, land has two major uses.
(a) Agricultural Land (b) Non-agricultural land.

1. Agricultural Land: Land for agriculture must be fertile, flat and free from many problems. Agricultural land can be used for food crop production e.g. rice, yam, potato, beans, sorghum and cash crops like kenaf, cotton, rubber, cocoa, kola, groundnut, etc. Agricultural land requires regular management practice like drainage, irrigation, and fertilizer application.

a. Land for Forestry:
i. Land for forestry must not be too fertile.
ii. Forest is established in area of sparse population.
iii. Land should be where the rate of erosion is high.
iv. Sometimes at state or country boundaries.
v. Disputed land.

Uses of forests include the following
– The wood of trees can be used in making paper, furniture, match sticks, coffins, canoes.
– The trees help to prevent erosion.
– The leaves of rainfall in an area.
– Herbs of various kinds can be got from the forest for medicinal purposes.
– Dyes, ropes, fibers, wax and latex are essential products from the forest.
– Forest acts as home for wild animals.
– Forest products can generate revenue and employment for people.

Some Forest Reserves in Nigeria
Shasha River Forest Reserve in Ogun State.
Omo Forest Reserve in Ogun State.
Sapoba Forest Reserve in Edo State.
Mamu River Forest Reserve in Anambara State.
Afi River Forest Reserve in Kadnuna State.
Awba Hills Forest Reserve in Oyo State.
Sanga Forest Reserve in Plateau State
Anara Forest Reserve in Kaduna State.
Zamfara Forest Reserve in Sokoto State
Okomu Forest Reserve in Edo State.
Ofosu Forest Reserve in Edo State.

b. Land for Wildlife
i. The land to be utilized for wildlife must not be good for agriculture and forestry.
ii. There should be sparse population where it is to be located.
iii. It may be a plain, hill or valley.

A wildlife reserve is a place where wild animals are conserved to avoid extinction while they are carefully exploited.

Uses of wildlife including the following:
i. Tourist attraction.
ii. Revenue generation.
iii. They provide horns, meat, egg and fish for food.
iv. Hides and skins from wildlife like zebra, giraffe, tiger are also very important.

Poaching or the indiscriminate killing of animals in a game reserve should be prohibited. Forest fires, fishing with chemicals should be avoided.

Examples of game reserves in Nigeria are:
i. Yankari Game Reserve in Bauchi State.
ii. Zugurma Game Reserve in Niger State.
iii. Borgu Game Reserve in Kwara State.
iv. Kainji National Park in Kogi State.

Some animals conserved in the game reserve are:
i. Lions. ii. Monkeys iii. Elephants iv. Tigers
v. Leopards vi. Snakes vii. Turtles viii. Tortoises
ix. Crocodiles x. Birds.

2. Non-Agricultural Land use
a. The lands for non-agricultural use are not good for agriculture, forestry and wildlife.
b. They are smaller in size in terms of land mass.
c. They are also suitable where population is high.

Types of non-agricultural activities:
i. Construction: This includes land for road, bridge, railway lines, airport, etc. Their major problem is the reduction of agricultural land as well as their ability to cause erosion due to inadequate drainage, and again, because agricultural land may be destroyed. Their usefulness lines in the case of transportation of goods and persons.
ii. Social / Recreational Centres: This includes the land for building viz:
(i) Cinema houses (ii) Parks – amusement park (iii) Stadia and gymnasia (iv) Churches and mosques (v) Schools – primary, secondary and tertiary (vi) Markets (vii) Hospital (viii) Cemeteries.
iii. Residential Buildings: This includes lands used for the construction of residential buildings, which we live. It also includes land for building offices, banks , etc.
iv. Industries Buildings: These are located either close to the raw materials or markets in Nigeria. Many industries are located in the industrial estates like Ikeja, Matori, Agbara in Lagos State.
v. Land for Mining: This includes land used for the extraction and mining of petroleum, gold, tin and others. The size of land may be very large therefore reducing agricultural land.

Assessment

1. Give three uses of Forest
2. List four examples of Non-agricultural activities related to land use
3. List 3 animals that can be found in the game reserve

Answers

1. The wood of trees can be used in making paper, furniture, match sticks, coffins, canoes.
   – The trees help to prevent erosion.
   – The leaves of rainfall in an area.
   – Herbs of various kinds can be got from the forest for medicinal purposes.
   – Dyes, ropes, fibers, wax and latex are essential products from the forest.
   – Forest acts as home for wild animals.
2. Construction of roads, bridges, 
   Social / Recreational Centres such as cinema, amusement parks, stadia, churches, schools
   Residential Buildings such as offices, banks, 
   Industry Buildings  
3. Lions, Monkeys, Elephants, Tortoises, Snakes, Leopards, Crocodiles, Turtles

Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production

WEEK 9

Agricultural Science S.S.S 1 First Term

TOPIC: Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production

Content

Environmental factors are those non-genetic factors which contribute to the characteristics of a plant. In other words, they are the components of all factors which influence plant growth and development to the exclusion of the genetic factors. They are referred to also as external factors to distinguish from the genetic factors which are described as internal.

The environmental  factors are divided into two main groups: biotic and abiotic factors. The descriptive word biotic means living while abiotic means non-living or dead.

Biotic Factors Affecting Agricultural Production.

Biotic factors means all factors or components of the environment that are “biotic” or living. Therefore, these factors comprise of living organisms belonging to any kingdom such as Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Monera, and Protoctista. The effects of these organisms on crop growth and yield are varied. Any of these factors can be advantageous or disadvantageous to a crop plant. Biotic factors refer to the living organisms, both macro- and micro-organisms, including the various ways in which they affect plant growth and development. These are

(1). Soil Organisms

(i) It includes bacteria, fungi, earthworm, rodent, termite, etc.

(ii) Some e.g. bacteria and fungi can cause diseases.

(iii) Some aids aeration of soils, percolation and fertility.

(iv) Some like the root nodule bacteria can fix nutrients directly to plants and soil.

(v) Some open up wounds on plants or animals for other pathogens to enter.

(vi) Some reduces the quality of crops e.g potato, yam etc.

(vii) Some helps in the decomposition of plant materials to form humus.

(2). Pests

(i) These include insects, rodents, birds and some mammals.

(ii) It reduces the yield of crops and animals.

(iii) It also reduces the quality of crops and animals.

(iv) Some are vectors or carriers of diseases.

(v) They reduces the income of the farmers

(vi) The cost of their control increases the cost of production

(3). Parasites

(i) They include ticks, liverflukes, tapeworm, dodder, mistletoe, lice, etc.

(ii) Some transmit diseases.

(iii) They reduce the quantity or yield of produce.

(iv) They also reduce the quality of produce.

(v) They may cause the death of plants and animals.

(vi) They reduce production capacity of livestock or crops.

(vii) Cost of control increases cost of production.

(viii) They may be external or internal (i.e. ecto or endoparasites)

(4). Diseases

(i) They may be viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, etc.

(ii) They causes reduction in yield of crops and animals

(iii) They can cause the loss or death of plants and animals.

(iv) The cost of control increases the cost of production.

(v) Reduction in farmer’s income.

(5). Weeds

(i) They compete with crops of space, water, nutrients and sunlight.

(ii) Some weeds can harbour diseases and pests.

(iii) They reduces the yield of crops

(iv) Weed control increases the cost of production.

(v) Weeds causes poor growth of crops

(6). Predators

(i) These are birds, rodents, praying mantis etc.

(ii) Some are beneficial in agricultural production.

(iii) Some are used to control some harmful pests of crops and animals.

(iv) Some feeds on farm animals e.g. hawks feed on chicks.

Abiotic Factors

The exact opposite to biotic factor is the abiotic factor, referring to the non-living components of the environment. It comprises of the topographic, soil (edaphic), and climatic factors. Further, the specific environmental factors under climatic factors include light, temperature, water or rainfall, relative humidity, air, gravity, and wind. The abiotic factors that affect plant growth and development include topography, soil, and climatic factors. They are the nonliving components of the environment which, along with the biotic or living factors, determine the extent in which the genetic factor is expressed in the plant. Examples of Abiotic factors are

1. Soil – Soil is the outermost layer of the surface of the earth in which plants grow. It is composed of eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying plant and animal matter, water and air. There are two properties of the soil having pronounced direct effects on plant growth and crop production: physical and chemical properties. The physical and chemical properties of the soil are referred to as edaphic factors of the plant environment. The physical properties include the soil texture, soil structure, and bulk density which affect the capacity of the soil to retain and supply water while the chemical properties consist of the soil pH and cation exchange capacity which determine its capacity to supply nutrients.
2. Topography – Topography is a nonliving factor that refers to the “lay of the land.” It includes the physical features of the earth such as the land elevation, slope, terrain (flat, rolling, hilly, etc.), mountain ranges and bodies of water. The steepness of a slope affects plant growth through differential incidence of solar radiation, wind velocity and soil type. A steep slope is susceptible of rapid surface runoff and soil erosion which cause soil degradation.
3. Climatic Factors – Climatic factors are also categorized under abiotic factors. These are rainfall and water, light, temperature, relative humidity, air, and wind.
   i. Light – Light is essential in the production of chlorophyll and also during photosynthesis reaction, the process by which plants manufacture food in the form of sugar (carbohydrate). Two ways in which light can affect productivity is through Intensity and Quality of Light.
   ii. Air – This is a mixture of gases. Plants breathe in Carbon dioxide and breathe out Oxygen. 
   iii. Rainfall/Water – This is the falling of water in droplets on the surface of the Earth from clouds. Plants need water regularly for healthy growth.
   iv. Temperature – The degree of hotness or coldness of a substance is called temperature . This climatic factor influences all plant growth processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed germination, protein synthesis, and translocation. At high temperatures the translocation of photosynthate is faster so that plants tend to mature earlier.
   v. Relative Humidity– This is the amount of water vapor in the air. It controls the opening and closing of Plant Stomata.

Assessment

1. ____ are  to the living organisms, both macro- and micro-organisms, including the various ways in which they affect plant growth and development.
2. Soil, topography and climatic factors are _____
3. Give three examples of parasites that can affect plant growth
4. How do weeds affect plant growth and production?
5. Light is essential in the production of ____

Answers

1. Biotic Factors
2. Abiotic Factors
3. Ticks, liverflukes, tapeworm, dodder, mistletoe,
4. Weeds compete with crops of space, water, nutrients and sunlight.
   Some weeds can harbour diseases and pests.
   Weed control increases the cost of production
5. Chlorophyll

Classification of Crops

Agriculture SSS1

Week 10

Topic: CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS BASED ON LIFE CYCLE

Classification of Crops based on Life cycle and Uses

Crops plants are classified based on three criteria which are;

1. Botanical classification – Based on generic and specific names
2. Agricultural classification – Based on the uses or important of crops to man and animals
3. Classification based on life cycle – Based on numbers of year or season from germination to harvesting or death.

General Classification of Plants

1. By Growth habit:

Succulent plants – herbaceous or herbs (succulent seed plants possessing self-supporting stems)
Vine – a climbing or trailing herbaceous plant (Liana – a climbing or trailing woody plant)
Trees – having a single central axis
Shrub – having several more or less upright stems

2. By Leaf drops:

Deciduous – no living leaves during dormant (winter) season (apple)
Evergreen – retaining functional leaves throughout the year (spruce)

3. By Life span:

Annuals – plants that normally complete their life cycle during a single growing season (lettuce, spinach, marigold)
Biennials – plant that normally completes its life cycle during a period of two growing seasons (celery, carrot)

Perennials – plants that grow year after year, often taking many years to mature.

4. By Temperature tolerance:

Tender plant – damaged or killed by low temperature
Hardy plant – withstands winter low temperatures
Wood hardy – a whole plant is winter hardy
Flower-bud hardiness – ability of flower buds to survive low winter temperatures (peach, ginkgo tree)

5. By Temperature requirements:

Cool-season crop – prefers cool temperatures (peas, lettuce)
Warm-season crop – prefers warm temperatures (tomato, pepper)

6. By Habitat or Site preference:

Xerophyte – prefers dry sites
Shade plants – prefers low light intensity
Acid loving – prefers low pH soils
Halophyte – prefers salty soils

Plant crops are grouped into three categories according to their life cycles such as;

I) Annual Crops

From the name it is clear that the plants live for one season or less. They complete their life cycle once in a year or a growing season; during which the vegetative and reproductive stages are completed e.g. maize, rice, cowpea, millet, vegetables, cotton, groundnut, etc. Annual plant is one which completes its life cycle from germination to seed formation within one season and then dies usually as a result of complete exhaustion of its food reserve in the process of reproduction. They comprise of several of most beautiful and easily grown plants, widely varying in from habit of growth and colour. Annuals are very effective, grown neither in pots or in ground. Particular annuals thrive best in particular period of the year. The annuals are conveniently grouped according to season as follows.

1. Rainy Season Annuals: They can stand more in rain than others and therefore grown to flower during rainy season. The time of sowing then would be from April to May in most places e.g. Mary gold, Aster, Zinnia etc.

2. Winter or Cold Season Annuals: The thrive and bloom best during winter. These are sown in September, October e.g. phlox, Antirrithium.

3. Hot weather or Summer season Annuals: They are sown in January – February and blooming period is April, May e.g. Sunflower and Zinnia.

II) Biennial Crops

They complete their life cycle once in two years or two group seasons. In the first year, they undergo the vegetative stages where leaves and roots are produced in abundance, the plant also elongates. But during the second year, the plants undergo reproductive stages where flowers, fruits and seeds are produced e.g carrot, lettuce, cabbage, ginger, cassava, etc. These plants usually requires two years or at least two growing seasons with  more or less of a dominant season or lasting season between two completed life cycle. Seed sown in spring or summer, and vegetative growth is completed in first year and in the following spring, flowering and fruiting takes place. Generally the period of growth is 6 to 9 months e.g. Gladioli, Dahlia. No hard and fast line can be drawn between annuals and biennials crops like turnip, carrot, cabbage and onion are classified as biennials.

III) Perennial Crops

Any plant that lives more than two years is a perennial e.g. Mango, Citrus. They complete their life cycle once in three years. In the first two cycles once in three years, they undergo vegetative stages while in the last years, the reproductive stages are completed e.g. rhizome, sugarcane, banana, plantain. A perennial plant that can survive for thirty years and above is called permanent crop e.g. cocoa, kola, mango, oil palm, rubber, coconut, etc.

These crops are classified in to two groups.

i) Herbaceous:

Herbaceous perennials are those with more or less soft succulent stems. In Temperate climates the tips die off after seasons growth but root remains alive and produce new stem and tops on favorable conditions. In other words their tips are annual while ground parts are perennials lie many years and are classified as: a) Trees b) Shrubs c) Vines according to their habit of growth.

a) Trees: Trees are upright in habit and stems take the form of central axis e.g. Mango, guava, Mandarins etc.

b) Shrubs: Shrubs have no main trunk but a number of erect or semi erect stems are seen but do not forms the main frame work e.g. Hibiscus, Rose etc.

c) Vine: Both woody and herbaceous have stems which are flexible and not in position to keep their branches and leaves erect. They either spread on the ground or require some support whether alive or man made e.g. Grape vines, Passion fruit etc.

Agricultural Classification or classification based on the uses of crops:- In this category crops are classified into the following groups, legumes, cereals, spice, latex, beverages, fibre.

IV) Ephemerals: They are crops that complete their life cycle once in three or four months and can undergo two or three life cycles in a year e.g. tomato

 ASSESSMENT

1. Give an examples each of annual, biennial, perennial crops
2. Give 2 examples of classifications of plant crops.
3. Name the three criteria inwhich plants are classified?

ANSWER

1. Annual- Rice  Biennial- Carrot  Perennial- Mango
2. By Growth and by Life Span
3.  

• Botanical classification – Based on generic and specific names
• Agricultural classification – Based on the uses or important of crops to man and animals
• Classification based on life cycle – Based on numbers of year or season from germination to harvesting or death.