REVISION OF LAST TERM’S WORK

      TRIAL BALANCE

      TRADING, PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

      BALANCE SHEET

      PERSONAL FINANCE

      SHORTHAND PRINCIPLES

      SPEED DEVELOPMENT IN SHORTHAND

      APPLIED KEYBOARDING (PAPER SIZES)

      APPLIED KEYBOARDING (DISPLAY)

      MANUSCRIPT

      KEYBOARD MEMORANDUM

      PERSONAL LETTERS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Revision of Last Term’s Work

Business Studies

JSS 3 – 2nd Term

Week 1

Topic: Revision of Last Term’s Work
Content

Revision

Trial Balance

Business Studies

JSS 3 – 2nd Term

Week 5
Topic: Trial Balance

Content:

• Meaning of a Trial Balance
• Uses of trial balance
• Balances that form the trial balance
• Formation of trial balance from ledger
• Identification of balance sheet items on the trial balance

A. Meaning of trial balance

Trial Balance is a list of closing balances of ledger accounts on a certain date and is the first step towards the preparation of financial statements. It is usually prepared at the end of an accounting period to assist in the drafting of financial statements. Ledger balances are segregated into debit balances and credit balances. Asset and expense accounts appear on the debit side of the trial balance whereas liabilities, capital and income accounts appear on the credit side. If all accounting entries are recorded correctly and all the ledger balances are accurately extracted, the total of all debit balances appearing in the trial balance must equal to the sum of all credit balances.

Trial balance can be defined as the schedule or list that shows the debit and credit balances extracted from the ledgers,to show the arithmetical accuracy of the ledgers. The technique ensure that debit and credit balances as displayed in the ledgers are complied.the objective is to prove the accuracy of the book-keeping.

B. Uses of trial balance

• Trial Balance acts as the first step in the preparation of financial statements. It is a working paper that accountants use as a basis while preparing financial statements.
• Trial balance ensures that for every debit entry recorded, a corresponding credit entry has been recorded in the books in accordance with the double entry concept of accounting. If the totals of the trial balance do not agree, the differences may be investigated and resolved before financial statements are prepared. Rectifying basic accounting errors can be a much lengthy task after the financial statements have been prepared because of the changes that would be required to correct the financial statements.
• Trial balance ensures that the account balances are accurately extracted from accounting ledgers.
• Trail balance assists in the identification and rectification of errors

C. Balances that form the trial balance

The following is an example of what a simple Trial Balance looks like-

ABC LTD Trial Balance as at 31 December 2011
Account Title	Debit	Credit
	N	N
Share Capital		15,000
Furniture & Fixture	5,000
Building	10,000
Creditor		5,000
Debtors	3,000
Cash	2,000
Sales		10,000
Cost of sales	8,000
General and Administration Expense	2,000
Total	30,000	30,000

• Title provided at the top shows the name of the entity and accounting period end for which the trial balance has been prepared.
• Account Title shows the name of the accounting ledgers from which the balances have been extracted.
• Balances relating to assets and expenses are presented in the left column (debit side) whereas those relating to liabilities, income and equity are shown on the right column (credit side).
• The sum of all debit and credit balances are shown at the bottom of their respective columns.

D. Formation of trial balance from ledger

Trial balance is prepared with two different techniques: Total Method and Balance Method.

According to the Total Method, total of debits and credits of every account is shown in the trial balance, i.e. both debit and credit totals are recorded in the trial balance. On the other hand, according to the Balance Method, only the Net balance which is the difference between credit and debit total is transferred and recorded.

Prepare a trial balance as on 31st Dec 2013 by filling in the debit and credit columns accordingly for each ledger balance mentioned below.

Account	Balance	Account	Balance
Capital	70000	Carriage Inwards	1500
Opening Stock	20000	Carriage Outwards	2000
Salaries	10000	Plant & Machinery	17000
Returns Inward	500	Investments	7000
Returns Outward	6000	Sales	90000
Purchases	10000	Patents	10000
Sales Ledger Control	7000	Furniture	8000
Purchase Ledger Control	40000	Discount Allowed	1000
Cash in Hand	5000	Misc. Receipts	4000
Cash at Bank	3000	Closing Stock	9000

Ans.

Trial Balance From the Above Ledger (31st Dec 2013)

	Debit	Credit
Capital		70000
Opening Stock	20000
Salaries	6000
Returns Inward	4000
Returns Outward		90000
Purchases	40000
Sales Ledger Control	23000
Purchase Ledger Control		42000
Cash in Hand	7000
Cash at Bank	12000
Carriage Inwards	3000
Carriage Outwards	1500
Plant & Machinery	15000
Investments	10000
Sales		57000
Patents	17000
Furniture	30000
Discount Allowed	1200
Misc. Receipts		3000
	‘	‘
Total	2,20,000	2,20,000

The way a balance is transferred to either debit or credit side of a trial balance depends on the nature of that account, below is the table showing the relationship between types of accounts and their usual balances.

Identification of balance sheet items on the trial balance

Assets

The assets accounts show how the company has used the money it has obtained from lenders, investors, and company earnings. Technically, according to GAAP, assets are resources with “probable future economi benefits obtaine or controlled by an entity resulting from past transactoins or events.” This leads to some non-intuitive results. Important resources like intellectual property or longstanding business relationships, though valuable to a business, are generally not reflected on the balance sheet.

Assets are grouped as monetary (cash and accounts receivables), liquid (whether they can easily be converted to cash), tangible or intangible.

Current assets: cash and those items, such as accounts receivable, that are normally expected to be converted into cash within one year.

Non-current assets:

Fixed assets: the company’s more or less permanent physical assets, such as its land, buildings, machinery and equipment

Intangible assets: goodwill, trademarks, copyrights, patents (reader beware!)

Depreciation

these are all terms that refer to allocating the cost of along-lived asset to consecutive accounting periods as expenses until the full cost is fully accounted for.

Intangible Assets

This item has become more important as intellectual property (patents, trademarks, copyrights) has become the darlings of the information age. Typically, IP is carried at its acquisition or development cost.

Liabilities

The second portion of the balance sheet consists of the company’s liabilities — usually separated into current liabilities and long-term liabilities. Liabilities can be understood as the opposite of assets — they represent obligations of the business. Not all obligations to make a payment in the future are reflected on the balance sheet. For example, an obligation to pay employees’ rising health care costs may be a significant commitment , it might not be represented on the balance sheet if sufficiently uncertain. Or the prospect of paying clean-up fees for a toxic site owned by the business may not make it to the balance sheet, though it may be described in a note.

Owners’ Equity

The third and final portion of a balance sheet represents the owners’ equity. In a sole proprietorship (a business with one owner), the ownership account is known as “proprietor’s equity”; in a partnership, the ownership account is “partners’ capital.”

Assessment

State the uses of trial balance

Trading, Profit and Loss Account

Business studies

JSS 3 – 2nd Term

Week 8

Topic: Trading, Profit and Loss Account

Content:

1. Meaning of trading, profit and loss account
2. Purpose of trading, profit and loss account
3. Trading account
4. Profit and Loss Account
5. Rules for constructing profit and loss account

Meaning of trading, profit and loss account

The account through which annual net profit or loss of a business is ascertained, is called profit and loss account. Gross profit or loss of a business is ascertained through trading account and net profit is determined by deducting all indirect expenses (business operating expenses) from the gross profit through profit and loss account. Thus profit and loss account starts with the result provided by trading account.

The particulars required for the preparation of profit and loss account are available from the trial balance. Only indirect expenses and indirect revenues are considered in it. This account starts from the result of trading account (gross profit or gross loss). Gross profit is shown on the credit side of the profit and loss account and gross loss is shown on the debit side of this account. All indirect expenses are transferred on the debit side of this account and all indirect revenues on credit side.  If the total of the credit side exceeds the debit side, the result is “net profit” and if the total of the debit side exceeds the total of the credit side, the result is net loss.

Purpose of trading, profit and loss account

The purpose of the profit and loss account is to:

• Show whether a business has made a PROFIT or LOSS over a financial year.
• Describe how the profit or loss arose – e.g. categorising costs between “cost of sales” and operating costs.

A profit and loss account starts with the TRADING ACCOUNT and then takes into account all the other expenses associated with the business.

Trading account

The trading account shows the income from sales and the direct costs of making those sales. It includes the balance of stocks at the start and end of the year.

An example of the trading account of a business would look this:

Trading account for XYZ Ltd for the year ended 31 March 20X5:

Note that the closing stock figure would appear in the balance sheet under Stock.

Profit and loss account

The trading account now has all the other expenses now deducted.

It would look like the table below:

Trading, profit and loss account for XYZ Ltd for the year ended 31 March 20X5

Notes on the items in the profit and loss account:

Sales: the amount of money generated by sales

Cost of sales: the cost of making the goods or buying them

Gross profit: sales less direct costs of sales

Overheads and expenses: Costs not directly involved in the production process (indirect costs)

e.g.

Cost of premises e.g. rent, insurance, repairs

Office costs e.g. stationery, postage, computer maintenance, staff salaries and wages

Sales and marketing costs e.g. salaries of salesmen, advertising

Finance costs e.g. bank charges, interest on bank loans

Rules for constructing profit and loss account

1. Debit any temporary revenue accounts by the full amount of money in the account. Credit “Income Summary” by the total amount of all the revenue accounts. This closes out all the profit accounts.

2. Debit “Income Summary” by the total amount of all the expense accounts. Credit any temporary expense accounts by the full amount of money in the account. This closes out all the expense accounts.

3. Debit “Unrealized Loss on Trading Securities” and credit the “Trading Securities” account if the market value of the trading security decreased. For example, if a company owns 100 shares of stock that decreased in value by $5 a share, then debit “Unrealized Loss on Trading Securities” by $500 and credit the “Trading Securities” account by $500.

4. Debit the “Trading Securities” account and credit “Unrealized Gain on Trading Securities” if the market value of the trading security increased. For example, if a company owns 100 shares of stock that increased in value by $5 a share, then debit the “Trading Securities” account by $500 and credit “Unrealized Gain on Trading Securities” by $500.

Assessment

• Briefly define Trading and profit and loss account
• State the rules for constructing profit and loss account

Balance Sheet

Business Studies

JSS3 2nd Term

Week 9

Topic: Balance Sheet

Content:

1. Meaning of Balance Sheet
2. Content of Balance Sheet
3. Classification of Balance Sheet Items
4. Preparation of Simple Balance Sheet

A. Meaning of Balance Sheet

The balance sheet provides a summary of the assets and liabilities of a business. It is a snapshot of those assets at a particular moment in time.

The balance sheet always balances because of the use of “double-entry” bookkeeping to record business transactions.

Every transaction in a business always has two equal effects on the assets and liabilities of a business. Some examples are shown below.

B. Content of Balance Sheet

Most of the contents of a business’s balance sheet are classified under one of three categories: assets, liabilities, and owner equity. Some balance sheets, though, also include a “notes” section wherein relevant information that does not fit under any of the above accounting categories is included. Information that might be included in the notes section would include mentions of pending lawsuits that might impact future liabilities or changes in the business’s accounting practices.

ASSETS Assets are items owned by the business, whether fully paid for or not. These items can range from cash—the most liquid of all assets—to inventories, equipment, patents, and deposits held by other businesses. Assets are further categorized into the following classifications: current assets, fixed assets, and miscellaneous or other assets. As David H. Bangs Jr. related in Finance: Mastering Your Small Business, “the list of assets starts with cash and ends with the least liquid fixed assets, those that are the hardest to turn into cash. For instance, if you have an item labeled ‘good will’ on your balance sheet, you’ll have to sell the business itself to turn that particular asset into cash.”

Current assets include cash, government securities, marketable securities, notes receivable, accounts receivable, inventories, prepaid expenses, and any other item that could be converted to cash in the normal course of business within one year. Fixed assets, meanwhile, include real estate, physical plant, leasehold improvements, equipment (from office equipment to heavy operating machinery), vehicles, fixtures, and other assets that can reasonably be assumed to have a life expectancy of several years. It is recognized, however, that most fixed assets—although not land—will lose value over time. This is known as depreciation. When determining a company’s fixed assets, then, a business owner needs to make certain that depreciation is figured into the final value of his or her fixed assets. The net fixed asset value of a company’s holdings is calculated as the net of cost minus accumulated depreciation. Finally, businesses often have assets that are less tangible than securities, inventory, or high-speed printers. These are classified as “other assets” and include such intangible assets as patents, trademarks, and copyrights, notes receivable from officers or employees, and contracts that call for them to serve as exclusive providers of goods or services to a client. Writing in Finance for Non-Financial Managers and Small Business Owners, Lawrence W. Tuller defined intangible assets as “any expenditure that adds value to the company but cannot be touched or held.”

LIABILITIES Liabilities, on the other hand, are the business’s obligations to other entities as a result of past transactions or events. These entities range from employees (who have provided work in exchange for salary) to investors (who have provided loans in exchange for the value of that loan plus interest) to other companies (who have supplied goods or services in exchange for agreed-upon compensation). Liabilities are typically divided into two categories: short-term or current liabilities and long-term liabilities.

Liabilities that qualify for inclusion under the short-term or current designation include all those that are due and payable within one year. These include obligations in the areas of accounts payable, taxes payable, notes payable, accrued expenses (such as wages, salaries, withholding taxes, and FICA taxes) and other expenses that are supposed to be paid off over the next year. Such obligations include the portion of long-term debt that is scheduled to be paid off during the course of the coming year. Long-term liabilities are those debts to lenders, mortgage holders, and other creditors that will take more than one year to pay off.

OWNERS’ EQUITY Once a business has determined its assets and liabilities, it can then determine owners’ equity, the book value of the business’s assets once all liabilities have been deducted. Owners’ equity, which is also sometimes called stockholders’ equity, is in essence the net worth of the company.

C. Classification of Balance Sheet Items

Assets

The assets accounts show how the company has used the money it has obtained from lenders, investors, and company earnings. Technically, according to GAAP, assets are resources with “probable future economic benefits obtained or controlled by an entity resulting from past transactions or events.” This leads to some non-intuitive results. Important resources like intellectual property or longstanding business relationships, though valuable to a business, are generally not reflected on the balance sheet.

Assets are grouped as monetary (cash and accounts receivables), liquid (whether they can easily be converted to cash), tangible or intangible.

Current assets: cash and those items, such as accounts receivable, that are normally expected to be converted into cash within one year.

Non-current assets:

Fixed assets: the company’s more or less permanent physical assets, such as its land, buildings, machinery and equipment

Intangible assets: goodwill, trademarks, copyrights, patents (reader beware!)

Depreciation

these are all terms that refer to allocating the cost of along-lived asset to consecutive accounting periods as expenses until the full cost is fully accounted for.

Intangible Assets

This item has become more important as intellectual property (patents, trademarks, copyriyrights) has become the darlings of the information age. Typically, IP is carried at its acquisition or development cost.

Liabilities

The second portion of the balance sheet consists of the company’s liabilities — usually separated into current liabilities and long-term liabilities. Liabilities can be understood as the opposite of assets — they represent obligations of the business. Not all obligations to make a payment in the future are reflected on the balance sheet. For example, an obligation to pay employees’ rising health care costs may be a significant commitment , it might not be represented on the balance sheet if sufficiently uncertain. Or the prospect of paying clean-up fees for a toxic site owned by the business may not make it to the balance sheet, though it may be described in a note.

Owners’ Equity

The third and final portion of a balance sheet represents the owners’ equity. In a sole proprietorship (a business with one owner), the ownership account is known as “proprietor’s equity”; in a partnership, the ownership account is “partners’ capital.”

Assessment

Define a Balance sheet and state its contents.

Personal Finance

Business Studies

JSS 3 – 2nd Term

Week 3

Topic: Personal Finance

Content:

1. Meaning of Personal Finance
2. Sources of finance for individuals
3. How to manage personal funds and keep records of expenditure

A. Meaning of Personal Finance

Personal finance defines all financial decisions and activities of an individual or household, including budgeting, insurance, mortgage planning, savings and retirement planning.

Personal finance is the financial management which an individual or a family unit performs to budget, save, and spend monetary resources over time, taking into account various financial risks and future life events. When planning personal finances, the individual would consider the suitability to his or her needs of a range of banking products (checking, savings accounts, credit cards and consumer loans) or investment private equity, (stock market, bonds, mutual funds) and insurance (life insurance, health insurance, disability insurance) products or participation and monitoring of individual- or employer-sponsored retirement plans, social security benefits, and income tax management.

B. Sources of finance for individuals

There are basically 5 sources of income for the individual. They are:

1. Income from salary

2. Income from Business/Profession

3. Income from capital gain

4. Income from House Property

5. Income from other sources

C. How to manage personal funds and keep records of expenditure

The key component of personal finance is financial planning, which is a dynamic process that requires regular monitoring and re-evaluation. In general, it involves five steps:

Assessment: A person’s financial situation is assessed by compiling simplified versions of financial statements including balance sheets and income statements. A personal balance sheet lists the values of personal assets (e.g., car, house, clothes, stocks, bank account), along with personal liabilities (e.g., credit card debt, bank loan, mortgage). A personal income statement lists personal income and expenses.

Goal setting: Having multiple goals is common, including a mix of short- and long-term goals. For example, a long-term goal would be to “retire at age 65 with a personal net worth of $1,000,000,” while a short-term goal would be to “save up for a new computer in the next month.” Setting financial goals helps to direct financial planning. Goal setting is done with an objective to meet specific financial requirements.

Plan creation: The financial plan details how to accomplish the goals. It could include, for example, reducing unnecessary expenses, increasing the employment income, or investing in the stock market.

Execution: Execution of a financial plan often requires discipline and perseverance. Many people obtain assistance from professionals such as accountants, financial planners, investment advisers, and lawyers.

Monitoring and reassessment: As time passes, the financial plan is monitored for possible adjustments or reassessments.

Typical goals that most adults and young adults have are paying off credit card/student loan/housing/car loan debt, investing for retirement, investing for college costs for children, paying medical expenses.

Assessment

• State the sources of finance for an individual
• Explain the steps involved in managing personal

Shorthand Principles

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 4

Topic: Shorthand Principles

Content:

• Compound Consonants (Kw, GW, Mp, Lr, Rr, and Wh)– Meaning

          – Classification

• Omission of Consonants– Ticks (/)

– Dots(.)

INTRODUCTION

There are 24 consonants, each consonant representing one single sound. In English language there are so many words which have compound consonants sounds (having more than one consonantal sound). To write these compound consonants, additional consonant strokes have not been provided in Pitman’s shorthand. Some of the existing consonants have been used to represent the compound sounds by adding hooks or by writing them as thick forms, yet ensuring formation of concise, brief and facile outlines. Even to represent medial ‘W’ additional use of semi circle has been made to keep the shorthand outlines as brief as possible.

COMPOUND CONSONANTS

Meaning:

As you know in the beginning that simple consonant is a sound which cannot be produced distinctly without the aid of a vowel. The compound consonants are the combination of two consonants. There are eight compound consonants in shorthand with distinct sign. The same are shown in the given tables.

Classification

Rules for the use of the compound consonants:-

1. The compound consonants KW, GW, WH, MP or MB are used when two consonants immediately succeed one another without any vowel between them.

2. Similarly the other compound consonants are used when they immediately succeed one another.

(i) The compound consonants KW(kwa) & GW (gwa)

A large initial hook written with the left motion or anticlockwise motion to the stroke k prefixes w and thereby represents the compound consonant kw. For

example:

quick ……………….. request ………………… require ………………… inquiry ………………… quote …………………

Exceptions : The compound consonant kw is not employed in the following cases:

(i) In order to avoid lengthy or awkward form, especially when the outline is quite legible without the ‘w’ being expressed. Thus……………………. quality ……………………. qualitative

(ii) In the derivatives from the logograms…………………..equal: Thus:- …………………….equality……………………. equalise……………………. equalisation ……………………. equalizing.

(iii) In distinguishing outlines. Thus…………………….‘queer’ to keep distinct from …………………..‘clear’ notwithstanding the difference in the size of the initial hook.

Assessment

State the rules for the use of the compound consonants

Speed Development in Shorthand

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 4

Topic: Speed Development in Shorthand

Content:

• Transcription of dictated passages on:1. Drug Abuse

2. Environmental pollution

3. Corruption

4. HIV/AIDS

Applied Keyboarding (Paper sizes)

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 5

Topic: Applied Keyboarding (Paper sizes)

Content:

• Types of papers
• Uses of each paper size
• Calculating the number of spaces available on each type of paper size

Paper comes in different sizes. There are names for the different sizes of paper. In different parts of the world, different sizes and names are used. The printing industry offers the use of various paper sizes and types depending on the applied technology and equipment.

Types of papers

A4 Size Paper & Uses

A4 paper is the size most used in the world. It is used as the classic paper sheet in all industrialized countries, and beyond, except in North America, which has retained different standards.

The dimensions of A4 is 297 x 210 mm or 11.69 x 8.27 inches. It has an area of 0.062 m², which corresponds to 0.07 square yards, 0.65 square foot, or 93 square inches. When usual and recommended printing margins are put , the printable size of A4 is 247 x 170 mm.

Compared to A0, which is the largest size standardized by ISO 216, A4 is 16 to 1, that is to say that one A0 sheet contains 16 A4 sheets. This proportion can also help to measure the weight of an A4 sheet. Indeed, A0 strictly measure 1 m². However, paper weights are expressed in g/m². So we know that for a paper of 160 g/m², an A4 sheet weighs 160/16 = 10 grams.

A4 is somehow the “star” of ISO 216. When it inherited in 1975 from Portsmann and his DIN 476 (1922), itself derived from the imagination of Professor Lichtenberg (1786), it had to be decided on a format that can correspond to a household and professional use. A4 was obviously the right size for these purposes.

Today, it is used for all printing, letters, magazines, forms … that can be found in everyday life.

A4 is a half an A3, quarter an A2, for larger sizes, and corresponds to 2 A5 sheets, 4 A6 sheets or 8 A7 sheets for smaller sizes

A4 is majoritly used for letters, pinting documents, magazines …

The measurements in inches of A4 is 8.27 x 11.69

or 8 1/4 x 11 11/16 inches

The size in centimeters of A4 is 21 x 29.7

or 210 x 297 millimeters

A5 Size Paper and Uses

A5 is a paper size that is often used for notepads or pocket books.

A5 is part of a set or range of page sizes, called the ISO A or ISO 216 standard. This international standard is based on the German DIN 476 standard from 1922. A5 is actually often referred to as DIN A5.

Measurement

A5 measures 148 × 210 millimeters or 5.83 × 8.27 inches. In PostScript, its dimensions are rounded off to 420 × 595 points.

A6 Size Paper & Uses

The size of this paper is usually 5 x 4 inches or (148 x 105 millimetres). It has59 (pica) or 70 (elite) horizontal spaces to a line. The total number single-line vertical spaces is 25. This type of paper is used in typing short letters/documents, memos, or short notices.

Octavo Size Paper & Uses

Octavo, a Latin word meaning “in eighth” or “for the eighth time”,[1] (abbreviated 8vo, 8°, or In-8) is a technical term describing the format of a book, which refers to the size of leaves produced from folding a full sheet of paper on which multiple pages of text were printed to form the individual sections (or gatherings) of a book. An octavo is a book or pamphlet made up of one or more full sheets of (e.g. A2 paper) on which 16 pages of text were printed, which were then folded three times to produce eight leaves. Each leaf of an octavo book thus represents one eighth the size of the original sheet. Other common book formats are folios and quartos. Octavo is also used as a general description of size of books that are about 8 to 10 inches tall (almost A5 paper size), and as such does not necessarily indicate the actual printing format of the books, which may even be unknown as is the case for many modern books. These terms are discussed in greater detail in book sizes.

Measurement

The term “octavo” as applied to such books may refer simply to the size of the book. The use of the term “octavo” as applied to such books refers to books which are generally between 8 to 10 inches (200 to 250 mm) tall, the most common size for modern hardbound books. More specific sizes are denoted by reference to certain paper sizes as follows:

Foolscap octavo (6¾” by 4¼”) (170 mm x 108 mm)

Crown octavo (7½” by 5″) (190 mm x 126 mm)

Demy octavo (8¾” by 5⅝”) (221 mm x 142 mm)

Globe octavo (? by ?)

Royal octavo (10″ by 6¼”) (253 mm x 158 mm)

Sixmo Size Paper & Uses

This paper is usually 6½ x inches (165 x 203 millimetres) in size. It usually has 65 (pica) or 78 (elite) spaces to a line. It is used for typing short display work, memos, short notices, etc.

Quarto Size Paper & Uses

The size of this paper is usually 8 x 10 inches (203 x 254 millimetres). It normally has 80 (pica) or 96 (elite) horizontal line spaces. The total number of single-line spacing vertically is 60. This type of paper is mostly used in offices for typing letter, literary work and sometimes short letters.

Foolscap Size Paper & Uses

The size of this paper is usually 8 x 13 inches (203 x 330 millimetres). It normally has 80 (pica) or 96 (elite) horizontal line spaces. The total number of single-line spaces vertically is 78. This type of paper is mostly used in offices for typing long letters/documents.

Calculating the number of spaces available on each type of paper size

Assessment

State the types of paper you know

Applied Keyboarding (Display)

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 6
Topic: Applied Keyboarding (Display)

Content:

• Methods of Display
• Heading

When displaying work on a typewriter, it should be done in such a way that the end result will be good and pleasing to the eye.

METHODS OF DISPLAY

Horizontal Centering

When the centering any line, set the carriage at the centre and then backspace once for each two letters and spaces that the typed line will occupy. The odd letter is ignored. Begin typing at the point to which you have back spaced. Fro example, to Centre Account as a heading, AC = 1 space, CO = 2 spaces, UN = 3 spaces.Ignore T which is an odd letter. Try saying the letter and counting at the same time as you backspace. You must note that if the edge of the paper is at 0, the scale point at which the ridge appears, half of that number will be the centre.

Vertical Centering

To centre vertically, count the number of lines (including blank ones) that the work will occupy, and substract the figure you get from the number of line spaces on your paper. After subtracting, divide the remainder by 32 and ignore fractions if there are any. For example, to centre 8lines of double spaced copy on A5 paper (148 x 210 mm) paper, you will need 15 lines, which is 8 typed and 7 blank, that is 50 – 15 = 35 lines,  which are left over and 35 will then be divided by 2 = 17. You should ignore 1/2. Start to type the work on the next line, that is, line 18.

HEADING

Headings are words or short phrases that introduce the topic encompassed in a section of text. Headings are used to block off long chunks of text and help readers quickly navigate a document. There are two types of headings in technical writing: first level headings and second level headings.

Main Heading

The main heading is that part of the subject heading string which represents the main concept without subdivision. Main headings may be categorized according to their functions: topical headings, form headings, and different kinds of proper name headings. They vary in syntax as well as in type.

Sub heading

Heading or caption subordinate to a main headline, heading, or title especially when inserted as a divider between sections.

Shoulder Heading

This is a heading that occupies a position at the left hand end of the first line of the paragraph to which is is the heading. For example a paragraph in a book.

Side Heading

Side headings (sidehead) are headings placed left (or right) to the regular text with the next paragraph on the same line. Side headings differ from run-in headings in their vertical alignment.

Assessment

Explain the methods of display

Manuscript

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 7
Topic: Manuscript

Content:

• Longhand
• Abbreviations
• Standard printer’s correction signs

Manuscripts are usually hand written letters/documents. To understand and read a manuscript, certain signs and abbreviations must be learnt by the person that will type it.

Longhand

If you write something down in longhand, you write it by hand using complete words and normal letters rather than typing it or using shortened forms or special symbols.

Abbreviations

Abbreviations are short forms of lengthy expressions. Abbreviations are in use in almost every discipline and area of life from commonly used abbreviations like names, for instance Mr. for Mister or Sgt. for Sergeant, to less commonly used abbreviations, such as the shortened version of abbreviation itself, which is abbr. The U.S. is itself a well-established abbreviation. Abbreviations exist in all areas of life from medicine to military and international relations to religion.

Written and verbal communication often includes these abbreviations:

R.S.V.P. – This acronym means “Répondez s’il vous plait,” French for “respond, if you please.” It is often used on invitations to parties and special events, and is intended (as it says) to be responded to with a “yes, we will attend,” or “no, we will not.”

P.S. – Means “post script.” At the end of a letter, people will often include a P.S. to include an extra thought that was intended to be included in the letter, but forgotten. Using a P.S. was more common in typewritten letters, when you couldn’t go back and add a sentence in the body of a letter.

A.S.A.P. – “As soon as possible,” used when encouraging someone to respond to a request without delay.

E.T.A. – This acronym means “estimated time of arrival,” and is used as a guess for when one expects to arrive while traveling.

B.Y.O.B. – “Bring your own bottle” is used for parties where guests are expected to bring their own beverages.

D.I.Y. – This acronym stands for “do it yourself,” which means creating something on your own.  It is often used for crafts and home repairs.

Standard printer’s correction signs

Assessment

Give the full meaning of the following; R.S.V.P, P.S, A.S.A.P, D.I.Y and E.T.A

Keyboard Memorandum

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 9
Topic: Keyboard Memorandum

Content:

• Meaning of memorandum
• Purpose of memorandum
• Layout in Keyboard memorandum
• Special features in Keyboard Memoradum

Meaning of memorandum

A memorandum (abbrev.: memo; from Latin memorandum est, “It must be remembered (that)…”) is a note, document or other communication that helps the memory by recording events or observations on a topic, such as may be used in a business office.

A memorandum may be used in court to prove that a particular contract was made. For instance, in a real estate transaction, a memorandum can be used to show that the parties to a sale have entered into an agreement to sell a particular parcel at an indicated price, in addition to other details of the agreement. This type of memorandum is also referred to as a binder.

Purpose of memorandum

Share News

Memos are used to keep employees informed on the latest happenings, either company-wide or in a specific department. For example, when management issues a change in corporate policy, a memo is used to explain the change.

Address a Problem

Companies might issue a memo to address a problem that has come to the attention of management. A memo like this might describe any information obtained through investigation that brought the problem to light, and address the severity level. Problems addressed in memos might include employee tardiness or absence, customer dissatisfaction, improperly followed procedures, or office etiquette problems such as improper use of cell phones during meetings.

Make a Request

Sometimes companies issue memos to make requests of employees. These might request attendance at meetings, changes in work procedures, or permission or cooperation to do a work-related activity. A request memo often includes instructions or recommendations for carrying out the request, such as specific actions. It might also mention benefits that will result from taking the actions, potential problems if the request is not fulfilled, or specific help that will be provided to complete the request.

Provide Feedback

Another common use of memos is to provide feedback on company programs, services or products. Memos used for this purpose give employees a response so they know how their work is being received. For example, workers in the quality assurance department of an industrial equipment manufacturer might like to know how well the product is performing for clients who purchased the equipment for the first time. Likewise, the HR department of a company might use a memo to provide employees with the results of a company-wide survey.

Layout of Memorandum

The heading of memorandums is designed to allow a reader to understand what he or she is looking at, and decide quickly whether he or she should read it. The heading has four or five parts, appearing in this order. The “subject line” should be brief, but clear.

To:
From:

Subject:

Date:

cc:

Special features in Keyboard Memoradum

All memos are structured similarly. They have the following elements:

An addressee: Flush left, in capital letters, near the top of the page

The sender: Flush left, in caps, immediately below the addressee

Date: Flush left, in caps, immediately below the sender’s name

Subject: Flush left, in caps, immediately below the date

Use suitable paper for your memos — white bond, either note size or standard to fit most desk in-baskets.

Assessment

What are the purposes of memorandum

Personal Letters

Business Studies JSS3 Second Term

Week 10

Topic: Personal Letters

Content:

• Meaning of Personal Letter
• Layout of Personal Letter

Meaning of Personal Letter

Personal letters are letters written to friends or relations on a personal note. It is a type of letter (or informal composition) that usually concerns personal matters (rather than professional concerns) and is sent from one individual to another.

Personal letters (alongside diaries and autobiographies) have been popular forms of personal communication since the 18th century. But as mentioned below, various innovations over the past several decades have contributed to a decline in the practice of personal letter-writing.

Layout of Personal Letter

1. Begin your letter by writing your name and address in the top right-hand corner of the page. It is important to include this information in case your return address (on the back of the envelope) is torn, or the envelope is thrown out. This way the person who receives the letter will always have your address and will be able to reply to you.

2. Next, write the date on which you are writing your letter. This goes on the left-hand side of the letter, just above where you will write your greeting. The date is important so the person who is reading it knows when it was written. It is also helpful for people who like to keep letters they have been sent and look back on them.

3. Under the date write your greeting. It is acceptable in a friendly letter to be informal with your greeting. Depending on how well you know the person you are writing to, you could use “Dear”, “Hi” or “Hello”.

4. Now it is time to start writing the content of your letter. This is where you put everything you want to include in your letter. Remember, if you forget anything you can always put it in the postscript.

5. When you have finished writing your letter, end it by signing off. Depending on how well you know the person, you could use “Your friend”, “See ya” or “From”.

6. Sign or write your name under the sign-off.

7. If you have forgotten to include something in your letter or you want to add an extra message, you can use a postscript (PS). This is written underneath your name at the bottom of the letter.

Assessment

State the layout of a Personal Letter