• FEEDS AND FEEDING
• SOIL FERTILITY
• FARMING SYSTEMS
• CROPPING SYSTEMS
• FISHERY
• FARM ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
• MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENT IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
• SOIL CONSERVATION
• FARM ANIMAL PARASITES
• DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS

Feeds and Feeding

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 3

Topic: Feeds and Feeding

Introduction

Animals are fed with different kinds of feeds which vary in composition and uses.  These feeds can be broadly classified into two: concentrates and roughages. 

Concentrates

These are high energy giving foods with low fibre content and are therefore easily digested. Concentrate maybe high in energy or protein. Concentrates have high nutritive value because they are important sources of proteins, energy, minerals and vitamins.

Classification of Livestock Feed

Animal feeds are grouped into four main categories. These are

• Carbohydrate concentrate / Energy feed/Basal Energy Feeds – These are feeds that are high in energy or a starchy foor. E.g. maize, cassava
  Characteristics
  –  Crude fibre content less than 18%
  –  High in carbohydrates and fat
  –  Low in protein and Fibre
  –  Highly digestible
  –  Low in Minerals

• Protein Concentrate – This is a type of feed that is high in protein
  Characteristics
  –    Low in carbohydrates and fat
  –    Low in fibre and has crude fibre less than 18%
  –    Highly digestible
  –    Low in minerals
• Mineral/Vitamins Supplement
  Characteristics
  –     Required in small quantity
  –    They supplement basal and protein concentrate
  –    They are low in energy, protein and fibre
  –    High in vitamins and minerals
  –    They aid resistance to diseases
  –    They are necessary for growth and development
  –    They aid food digestion
  –    They include minerals, vitamins and essential amino acids
• Roughages
  Characteristics
  –    Low in digestible carbohydrate and protein
  –    High in Fibre, crude fibre is 18%
  –    They have poor or low digestibility
  –    Pasture lands such as grasses and legumes form roughages
  –    They exist in different forms such as straw, hay, soilage and silage

Hay – This refers to the aerial part of young and succulent grass or herbage cut and dried for feeding animals. Its nutritive value is higher than straw.
Straw – This refers to the aerial part of grass or harvested crops cut and stored for future use. Straw is difficult to digest because the plants are cut after the crops have been harvested. Wet roughages are referred to as silage and soilage.

1. Silage – This refers to the preservation of green and succulent forage under anaerobic conditions.
Preparation of silage
Dig a large pit according to your requirements
– Cut pasture species at the right stage of maturity before flowering
– Chop pasture in pieces
– Line the inside of pit with palm fronds or banana leaves
– Load the chopped and mixed pasture into pit
– Compress each layer by rolling heavy substances over it
– Sprinkle dilute mineral acid after each layer
– Compress the heap after loading all layers
– Spread polyethene sheet or banana leaves on the heap
– Heap soil on the sheet and leave to ferment for 2 – 4 weeks.

2. Soilage – This refers to process of cutting fresh and succulent grasses and legumes from the field and taking them to animals in their pens. They have high moisture contents and high nutrients. Soilage is also referred to as zero grazing.

Feeding Tools 

These are tools used for feeding farm animals. 

Feeders – They are also known as feeding troughs. They are containers used for supplying feed to farm animals to eat. Feeders are generally made of galvanised sheets, plastics or wood.

Waterers – These are containers made of metal, plastic or aluminium sheets which are used for holding water for farm animals to drink.

Practice Questions

• How can silage be made?
• Hay or straw, which is more nutritive?
• Soilage is also referred to as ____

SOIL FERTILITY

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 1 & 2
Topic: SOIL FERTILITY
Contents:

What is Soil Fertility?

Plant Nutrients

Ways of Maintaining Soil Fertility

A. What is Soil Fertility?

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to apply all the necessary soil nutrients required by the plants for it growth and development in right proportion and absolve-able form.

Soil fertility refers to the ability of a soil related to plants its ease of tillage, fitness of seedbed, and impedance to seedling emergence and root penetration by providing nutrients and suitable soil structure to support the plants/trees growth.

The fertility of the soil can be considered in different ways, depending on land use. In intensively managed agricultural and horticultural systems, and even in forestry, soil fertility can be defined in terms of the value of products produced relevant to inputs used (including economic aspects of nutrient budgeting). Alternatively, the emphasis may be on quality or productivity.

i.e. The fertility of soil is related to its capacity to produce a product.

In many natural ecosystems, the value of land use may not be clearly defined, and a different definition of soil fertility may be more suitable.

i.e. The fertility of soil is related to its capacity to support a particular natural community of plants.

Another view might emphasize the concept of sustainability.

i.e. The fertility of a soil is related to its capacity to maintain consistent output with minimal input.

Thus, the concept of soil fertility is most useful when it is used in a specific context. However, in all contexts, soil fertility depends on physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

A fertile soil has the following properties:

• It is rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nutrition, including nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
• It contains sufficient minerals (trace elements) for plant nutrition, including boron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, magnesium, molybdenum, sulfur and zinc.
• It contains soil organic matter that improves soil structure and soil moisture retention.
• Soil pH is in the range 6.0 to 6.8 for most plants but some prefer acid or alkaline conditions.
• Good soil structure, creating well drained soil, but some soils are wetter (as for producing rice) or drier (as for producing plants susceptible to fungi or rot, such as agave).
• A range of microorganisms that support plant growth.
• It often contains large amounts of topsoil.

B. Plant Nutrients

The mineral elements required by plant in large quantity are called macro nutrients, while these required in small quantities are called micro-nutrients e.g zinc.

Macronutrients

Macronutrients can be broken into two more groups:  Primary and Secondary nutrients.

The Primary nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). These major nutrients usually are lacking from the soil first because plants use large amounts for their growth and survival.

The Secondary nutrients are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). There are usually enough of these nutrients in the soil so fertilization is not always needed. Also, large amounts of Calcium and Magnesium are added when lime is applied to acidic soils. Sulfur is usually found in sufficient amounts from the slow decomposition of soil organic matter, an important reason for not throwing out grass clippings and leaves.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are those elements essential for plant growth which are needed in only very small (micro) quantities. These elements are sometimes called minor elements or trace elements, but use of the term micronutrient is encouraged by the American Society of Agronomy and the Soil Science Society of America. The micronutrients are boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), chloride (Cl), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn). Recycling organic matter such as grass clippings and tree leaves is an excellent way of providing micronutrients (as well as macronutrients) to growing plants.

C. Ways of Maintaining Soil Fertility

• Use of organic manure-Green , animal, farmyard and compost manure
• Inorganic fertilizer application
• Bush fallowing
• Cover cropping
• Crop rotation
• Practice mixed cropping
• Alley Cropping

There are various ways of maintaining soil fertility. This includes: Use of organic manure-Green , animal, farmyard and compost manure, Inorganic fertilizer application, Bush fallowing, Liming, Crop rotation and Alley cropping.

 Use of organic manure-Green , animal, farmyard and compost manure

Manure is organic matter, mostly derived from animal feces except in the case of green manure, which can be used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil. Higher organisms then feed on the fungi and bacteria in a chain of life that comprises the soil food web. It is also a product obtained after decomposition of organic matter like cow dung which replenishes the soil with essential elements and add humus to the soil.

 Inorganic Fertilizer Application

A fertilizer (or fertiliser in British English) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.

Bush fallowing

A type of subsistence agriculture in which land is cultivated for a period of time and then left uncultivated for several years so that its fertility will be restored.

Manuring

Animal manures or farmyard manure (FYM).  This is the use of dung, urine and bedding materials (if the animals are kept inside).  FYM varies depending on type of animal, their age and condition, food consumed and how the manure is stored.

Characteristics of Farmyard Manure include:

• Low in mineral nutrients but high in organic matter
• Often low in Phosphorus, may need to combine with phosphate fertilizer
• Composition varied according to source

Animal waste.  Including offal, dried blood and bone, unused hoof and horn. Often used in temperate climates by gardeners, care must be taken not to spread disease.

Human excreta and faeces and food waste.  Latrine waste can be used after two years buried in a pit.

Green manure – Some crops are grown to provide organic matter.  Leguminous crops fix nitrogen in the soil.  When cut and composted into the soil or cultivated when they are young, they increase the organic matter content, improve soil structure, make phosphorus and certain trace elements available to plants, check erosion and leaching and help control weeds.

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar/different types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.

Crop rotation gives various nutrients to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals and other crops. Crop rotation also mitigates the build-up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped, and can also improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants. Crop rotation is one component of polyculture.

Compost Making

Composting is the rotting down of plant and animal remains before it is applied to the soil.  The compost should be mixed with available manure and allowed to decompose together for a maximum of two months before applying to the soil.  Composting is safer because the heat generated whilst the material breaks down kills diseases and weeds and seeds and the mixture has a better balance of all the soil needs.

Building a compost heap is done in four layers:

Bottom layer – the base is made of stones and sticks to allow drainage and aeration

• Next to bottom – crop residues, usually the bulk ingredient
• Next to top – can be made of animal dung, egg shells and cooking waste
• Top layer – made of soil about 25mm deep with wood ash, nitro chalk and super-phosphate if available.

The layers on top of the base need turning once or twice during the composting period.  Compost needs to be kept moist, either by rainwater or watering if necessary, but must not become too wet or it will rot.  Too much rain will also leach out the nutrients

Liming

Liming is the application of calcium and magnesium-rich materials to soil in various forms, including marl, chalk, limestone, or hydrated lime. This neutralizes soil acidity and increases activity of soil bacteria.

Mixed Cropping

Different crops are grown in the same field which helps prevent soil erosion and controls the spread of soil-borne plant disease.  Leguminous plants will add nitrate to the soil which improves fertility.  Deep rooted crops will help improve the soil structure.

Alley Cropping

This is where the crops are grown between rows of trees, some of which can fix nitrogen in the soil.  The roots fix nitrogen, then the trees are cut back with the leaves being incorporated into the soil as green manure.

Practice Questions

1. The system in which crops are grown between rows of trees, some of which can fix nitrogen in the soil is called ____
2. _____ is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar/different types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons
3. _____  is the ability of the soil to apply all the necessary soil nutrients required by the plants for it growth and development in right proportion and absolve-able form.
4. The system where different crops are grown in the same field is called ____
5. A _____ is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues  to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.

Answers

1. Alley cropping
2. Crop Rotation
3. Soil fertility
4. Mixed Cropping
5. Fertilizer

Farming Systems

Agriculture JSS2 Second term

Week 4

Topic: Farming Systems

Introduction

“Farming system” therefore designates a set of agricultural activities organized while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability. The emphasis is more on a system rather than on gross output.

In other words “farming system” is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustain agricultural production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household while preserving the resource base and maintaining high environmental quality.

Farming system consist of several enterprises like cropping system, dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee, keeping etc. these enterprises are interrelated. The end product and wastes of one enterprise are used as inputs in others. The waste of dairying like dung, urine, refuse

Types of Farming System

Mixed Farming – This is a system of farming where a farmer raise both crops and animals on the same piece of land. In this system, the farmer may keep different animals for different purposes. For example, he can keep cow for milk production, sheep and goat for meet, poultry for eggs, horses as work animals. He can also plant different types of crops e.g. maize, cowpea, sorghum, rice, yam etc The remains of crops may be used by the farmer to feed his animals while the dung and droppings are in turn used to enrich the soil.

Advantages of Mixed Farming

1. Animal dung and dropping can be added to the soil in the form of manure to improve soil fertility
2. Remains of crops such as maize, rice, or sorghum may be used to feed the farm animals
3. It encourages efficient use of farm labour hence yield is often increased
4. The risk of total loss is reduced as both animals and crops will not fail 
5. The sale of farm animals and crops provide additional source of income and prevents financial hardship for th farmer

Disadvantages of Mixed Farming

1. It is capital intensive
2. If the animals are not properly managed, they can break loose and destroy the crops
3. Animals can be expensive to maintain especially in terms of vaccination and treatment of diseases
4. Mixed farming requires great skill and if care is not taken, the farmer may not have enough time for both the animals and the crops

Shifting Cultivation – This is a system of farming in which a farmer abandons a plot of land after planting on it for two or more years. In this system, the farmer has no intention of coming back to the former piece of land.

Advantages of Shifting Cultivation

1. The soil regains lost nutrients without any effort by the farmer
2. Shifting cultivation helps to check the build up of insect pests and diseases

Disadvantages of Shifting Cultivation

1. It can only be practiced in areas where land is abundant and population is low
2. Much time, energy and money are wasted clearing new farm
3. The soil is exposed to danger of erosion and valuable soil nutrients and organic matter are lost during burning

Pastoral Farming – This is a system of farming in which a farmer keeps only livestock. Animals kept may include cattle, sheep, goats. Pastoral farming may be Nomadic herding or Ranching

Normadic Herding (unsettled) – This is a system of pastoral farming which involves the movement of the herdsman with his animals from place in search of green pasture and water during the dry season. 

Advantages of Normadic Herding – Movement of herds prevent starvation and deathin areas where water and food are relatively scarce

Disadvantages of Normadic Herding

• Irregular supply of food and water to animals
• Animals are exposed to insect and pest diseases
• Poor quality animals resulting from poor and unplanned breeding
• The dungs and droppings of the animal could have formed an excellent source of manure if they were on a farm land instead it is wasted
• The herdsman an animals are exposed to the risk of being killed

Ranching – this is a settled form of pastoral farming for livestock production. In this system, the pasture is managed properly to provide feed for all the animals all year round.

Advantages of Ranching

• Pasture and water are available all year round
• Low death rate and production of high quality animals
• Low incidence of pest and diseases as a result of good management of the animals and proper breeding.

Disadvantages of Ranching

• Expensive to practice
• Overstocking will reduce the pasture available to each animal which may bring about the death of weaker animals
• Risk of total loss of animals if attacked by disease

Practice Questions

1. _____ designates a set of agricultural activities organized while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability.
2. ____ is a settled form of pastoral farming for livestock production. In this system, the pasture is managed properly to provide feed for all the animals all year round.
3. One of the following is not an advantage of Ranching
   a. Pasture and water are available all year round
   b. Low death rate and production of high quality animals
   c. Expensive to practice
   d. Low incidence of pest and diseases
4. ____ is a system of farming in which a farmer abandons a plot of land after planting on it for two or more years. 
5. One of these is an advantage of mixed farming
   a. It is capital intensive
   b. Animal dung and dropping can be added to the soil in the form of manure to improve soil fertility
   c. If the animals are not properly managed, they can break loose and destroy the crops
   d. Animals can be expensive to maintain especially in terms of vaccination and treatment of diseases
6. ____ a system of farming in which a farmer keeps only livestock.
7. One of the following is an advantage of Shifting cultivation
   a. It can only be practiced in areas where land is abundant and population is low
   b. Much time, energy and money are wasted clearing new farm
   c. The soil is exposed to danger of erosion and valuable soil nutrients and organic matter are lost during burning
   d. The soil regains lost nutrients without any effort by the farmer

Answers

1. Farming system
2. Ranching
3. C
4. Shifting cultivation
5. B
6. Pastoral farming
7. D

Cropping Systems

Agriculture JSS2 Second term

Week 5

Topic: Cropping Systems

Introduction

The various systems used by farmers for crop production include

Monocropping (Sole Cropping) – This is the practice of growing one type of crop and harvesting it before planting another on the same piece of land. In this system, annual crops are mostly planted and the same type of crop may not necessarily be planted every year. 

Advantages of Monocropping

1. It leads to specialization as the farmer becomes an expert in all farming operations involved in the process
2. It makes room for efficient use of farm labour
3. It is easy to mechanize the crop production
4. It is easy to apply fertilizers and control pest and diseases

Disadvantages of Monocropping

1. It is a risky system in that if there is an outbreak of an epidermic, the farmer will lose all
2. The crop may be over produced which leads to fall in price
3. The land may be exposed to erosion after harvest
4. If the crop is produced for export, the farmers economic status will depend on the world market price

Mixed Cropping

This is a system where a farmer grows more than one type of crop on a piece of land at the same time. A farmer may plant maize, yam, groundnut, cowpea, tomato, vegetables and cassava on the same piece of land. It can be practiced in two ways – Interplanting and Intercropping 

Interplanting – This is a system in which  two crops are planted at different dates and the crop planted first is harvested first and the second one is harvested later. E.g A maize can be interplanted with Yam, the maize can be harvested first while the yam is harvested later.

Intercropping – The crop planted first is harvested last and the crop planted last is harvested first. E.g. Cowpea can be intercropped with Yam, Cowpea is planted after Yam is planted but Cowpea is harvested first.

Advantages of Mixed Cropping

1. It provides a kind of insurance against crop failure because all crops can not fail
2. It helps to improve the soil fertility especially if legumes are planted
3. Mixture of crops covers the surface of the soil thereby preventing erosion
4. It helps to reduce the growth and spread of weeds
5. The incidence of pests and diseases are considerably reduced

Disadvantages of Mixed Cropping

1. It is difficult to mechanize the farm
2. It is difficult to control pest and diseases
3. Fertilizer requirements and suitable methods of application are difficult to determine since there are different crops
4. The soil may lose its fertility quicker since many crops are taking nutrient at the same time
5. Serious competition among crops,  struggling for water, sunlight, space and nutrients.

Continuous Cropping

This is the practice of growing the same crop on a piece of land year after year . 

Advantages of Continuous Cropping

1. It saves time, energy and money as new farmland is not cleared every year
2. It saves land and can be practiced where population is high
3. It is easy to mechanize the farm and apply fertilizer
4. There may be high demand for cultivated crop and this will lead to increased price
5. The system encourages specialization since only two types of crops are planted from year to year

Disadvantages of Continuous Cropping

1. The soil is often exposed to agents of erosion
2. A lot of money is spent on fertilizer needed to replenish the lost nutrients
3. It may lead to total failure if the crop is attacked by disease
4. It encourages the build up of insect pests and diseases and therefore causes damage with time.

Ley farming – This involves the planting of forage crops and food crops in alternation. The forage crops are legumes, grasses and other plants acceptable to farm animals as food while food crops maybe maize, rice, cowpea etc

Crop Rotation

Crop rotation can be defined as the sequence planned of growing different crops on a piece of land after a year. Crop rotation is practiced where intensive farming systems are used especially where land is scarce. This is the system of cropping in which different crops are planted on a piece of land in such a way that the crops follow themselves in a definite cycle to return nutrients to the the soil.

Advantages of Crop Rotation

• It facilitates efficient and economic use of land.
• It helps to reduce the risk of serious diseases and pests.
• It helps to check water erosion since the soil is not exposed
• It adds nitrogen to the soil if legumes are included
• It saves time, land, energy and money

Disadvantages of Crop Rotation

• If the rotation is poorly planned, it will reduce yield because nutrients are depleted
• Valuable sum of money is spent to purchase fertilizers

An example of a four year crop rotation
Years           Plot A       Plot B         Plot C          Plot D
1st year      Maize        Yam            Beans          Cassava
2nd year     Yam          Beans          Cassava       Maize
3rd year      Beans       Cassava       Maize          Yam
4th year      Cassava    Maize          Yam            Beans

Principles of Crop Rotation

1. Shallow rooted crops should be alternated with deep rooted crops.
2. Crops requiring different cultivation practices should follow one another.
3. Crops that are attacked by similar pests and diseases should not follow one another.
   
   
4. A good rotation includes a follow period of at least one year.

Practice Questions

Intercropping, Monocropping, Mixed cropping, Ley farming, Crop rotation, Continuous cropping, Crop rotation, Mixed cropping, Sole cropping

1. ____ is a system where a farmer grows more than one type of crop on a piece of land at the same time.
2. ____ can be defined as the sequence planned of growing different crops on a piece of land after a year.
3. ____ is the practice of growing the same crop on a piece of land year after year .
4. ___ involves the planting of forage crops and food crops in alternation.
5. In _____ the crop planted first is harvested last and the crop planted last is harvested first
6. ____ is the practice of growing one type of crop and harvesting it before planting another on the same piece of land.

Answers

1. Mixed cropping
2. Crop rotation
3. Continuous cropping
4. Ley farming
5. Intercropping
6. Monocropping

Fishery

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 6

Topic: Fishery

Introduction

A fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish. Fish are the most plentiful of all aquatic animals. They are specifically adapted to live all their lives in water and therefore cannot be raised on land without water. The streamlined shape of their bodies help them to move easily in the water and their swim bladder helps them to keep afloat and maintain balance in water.

Classification of Fish

Classification based on habitat – two groups

Fresh water fishes – They live in fresh water (water without salt). Examples of fresh water are ponds, streams, lakes, rivers. Examples of fish are tilapia, carp, trout, mudfish.

Salt water fishes – They live in salt water (water that contains salt). Examples of salt water are lagoons, seas, oceans. Examples of fishes are mackerel, tilapia, shark, rays, eels.

Classification based on body structure – two groups

Bony fishes – They possess bony structure. Examples are tilapia, mudfish, salmon, catfish, perch, herring, and trout. Most of them are found in fresh water

Cartilaginous fishes – They possess soft bones composed of cartilage. Examples are shark, dolphin, rays and dogfish. Most of them are found in salt water.

Other Aquatic Food Organisms of Agricltural Importance

They are subdivided into Vertebrates and Invertebrates.

The Vertebrates include Amphibians e.g Frogs, and Toads, Reptiles e.g. crocodiles, alligators and turtles, Mammals e,g, seals, hipopotamus and dolphins

The Invertebrates include Molluscs e.g Oysters, squids, periwinkles and Octopus, Arthropods e.g Crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps.

Uses of Fish and Fish Products

1. Fish are important source of animal protein, minerals and vitamins, all of which are essential for normal growth of the body
2. The skins of some aquatic oraganisms such as crocodile, alligators and turtles are used as fine leather for making bags and shoes
3. Fish and its parts maybe crushed and processed into fish meal which is an essential ingredients in animal feeds
4. The shells of oysters and periwinkles are used for decorating walls of some buildings
5. Fish pond provides entertainment for people
6. Fish production provides raw materials for industries engaged in foor protein meals and consequently enhances employment opportunities

Methods of Fishing

The Wounding Equipment – These are equipment designed for injuring big fish in water. They are thrown into the water aiming at the fish and when its wounded, it cannot escape. Example – harpoons, knives and arrows.

Fishing Nets – Nets are made from cotton or nylon thread. They are thrown into water to catch fish. The edges of the nets are lined with stones to enable the net sink to the bottom of the water. The different types of nets are:

Clap Nets – This consists of a pair of fishing nets used for catching fish in rivers, streams, creeks and lakes.

Cast Nets – This method is used commonly by Nigerian Fishermen for catching fish in rivers, lakes, streams, lagoons. The method requires a boat or canoe and the net is cast into the river by the fisherment in the boat.

Gill Nets – This type of net is used in shallow streams or lakes. It involves suspending the net vertically in the water till the next day so that the fish trying to swim across can be trapped.

Fish Traps – Many traps are used by fishermen for catching fish. Examples are funnel entrance traps, triggered traps, hooks,  fences and poisoned baits.

Practice Questions

1. A____ is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish

2. Name and explain the 2 classes of fish

3. List 3 fishing equipments

4. List 3 uses of fish and its products

5. What method of fishing can be used to capture big fishes

Answers

1. Fishery

2. Bony and Cartilaginous fish. Bony fish possess bony structure while cartilaginous fish posses soft bones composed of cartilage.

3. – Fish traps
    – Gill nets
    – Clap nets
    – Fishing nets
    – Cast nets

4. Fish are important source of animal protein, minerals and vitamins, all of which are essential for normal growth of the body
–  The skins of some aquatic oraganisms such as crocodile, alligators and turtles are used as fine leather for making bags and shoes
–  Fish and its parts maybe crushed and processed into fish meal which is an essential ingredients in animal feeds
–  The shells of oysters and periwinkles are used for decorating walls of some buildings

5. The Wounding Equipment

Farm Animal Husbandry

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 7

Topic: Farm Animal Husbandry

Introduction

Animal husbandry is the management and care of farm animals by human beings, in which genetic qualities and behavior, considered to be advantageous to humans, are further developed. Animal husbandry is the proper management of farm animals to maximize production. This includes proper housing, feeding, and health care management. Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.

Importance of Animal Husbandry

1. To increase the production of milk
2. To increase the production of eggs
3. To increase the production of meat
4. To increase the production of fish
5. To utilize the animal wastes properly

Housing

Ruminants such as cattle, sheep and goats can thrive well on pasture with little or no other feed supplement. They therefore do not require special housing arrangement. However in intensive system, they may be provided with sheds which are designed to protect them from adverse weather conditions such as severe cold, heat, wind and rain. Sometimes ruminants may be confined to a fenced area called paddocks to provide shade for the animals.

In pig production, there are both intensive and extensive systems. In intensive system, pigs are clean because their movement is restricted. The floor of the house is made of concrete to control internal parasites.
In poultry production, housing is intensive, semi intensive and extensive. In intensive system, two types of housing are used – battery cage and the deep litter system. For battery cage, the poultry birds are confined to cages which may be metal or wood. In deep litter, birds are kept in well ventilated houses made of concrete floor which is then covered with saw dust or wood shavings. The roof is made of iron or asbestos sheet. In semi intensive, birds are kept in fixed solid houses with grass runs attached where the birds can get exercises, sunlight and green feeds.  In extensive system, birds are kept in portable house which are moved at frequent intervals to avoid parasite build up or they may be allowed to move freely to fend for themselves.

Feeding

Farm animals require good feeding for optimum production. All farm animals require carbohydrates and fats for energy, protein for growth and repairs, vitamins and minerals for maintenance of good health. Different feeds are dependent on

1. the purpose for which the animals are kept i.e. meat, egg or milk
2. their digestive system
3. age

Ruminants generally thrive well on pasture and this is because of their complex stomach. They should therefore be provided with a rich pasture of grasses and legumes. Pigs feed on both plant and animal matter because they are omnivores and they feed mainly on cereal grains such as maize, rice ban and protein concentrate. The ultimate aim of any poultry farmer is to raise birds that either for egg or meat. For this reason, birds require a different kind of feed depending on the purpose of production.

1. chicks mash – fed to day old chicks until they are about 8weeks old
2. growers mash – fed to growers from about 8wks to 16wks
3. layers mash – fed to pullets (layers) from 16wks of age until they are sold or culled due to old age or low productivity
4. broiler starter – fed to broilers from 9wks old to 14wks
5. broiler finishe – fed to broilers from 14wks of age until when they are big enough for sale

Rabbits eat any type of green vegetable

Weaning

Young animals e.g. mammal receive milk from their mother and should be allowed to nurse them until they are no longer satisfied wilk breast milk. The animals are then fed independently of their mothers. The process of separating the young animal from the mother so that it can feed independently is called Weaning. 

Practice Questions

Explain the kind of feeding for Poultry Birds.

List three importance of Animal husbandry

What is Weaning? 

Management Requirement in Animal Husbandry

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 8

Topic: Management Requirement in Animal Husbandry

Housing – Ruminants such as cattle, goat and sheep can thrive well on pasture with little or no other feed supplement. They do not require special housing arrangement. In an intensive system, they may be provided with sheds which are designed to protect them from adverse weather condition. In pig production, there are both intensive and extensive systems. In intensive system, pigs are housed well in houses called pens. In this system, pigs are clean because their movement is restricted. The floor is made of concrete to control internal parasite. The roof may be thatched or asbestos sheet.

In other systems, pigs maybe kept in fenced areas with pasture to graze or they may be allowed to freely roam about freely to search for their foods. In poultry production, there are intensive, semi intensive and extensive system of management. In intensive two types of houses are used, the battery cage and the deep litter cage. In battery cages, poultry birds are confined to cages which may be metal or wood. Feeding and drinking troughs are attached to the cages to allow food and water.

In deep litter system, birds are kept in well ventilated concrete floor houses covered with saw dust. The roof is made of iron or asbestos sheet. The walls and roofs are covered with wire gauze to prevent predators.

In semi-intensive system, birds are kept in fixed solid houses with grass runs attached where birds can get exercises, sunlight and green feeds.

In extensive system, birds may be kept in portable houses which are moved at frequent intervals to avoid parasite build up or they may be allowed to move freely to fend for themselves.

Rabbits require well ventilated and properly lighted houses to provide protection from cold, heat and rain. The roof maybe covered with corrugated iron or asbestos sheets.

Feeding – Farm animals require feeding for optimum production. All farm animals require carbohydrates, fats and oil, energy and protein.

Ruminants generally can thrive well on pasture. This is because of their complex stomach and the presence of microorganisms in their rumen which can digest grasses. They would therefore be provided with rich pasture of grasses and legumes. Pasture should be supplemented with concentrates as well as salt licks.

Pigs feed on both plant and animal matter because they are omnivores. They feed mainly on cereal grains such as maize, rice bran and protein concentrates such as ground nut and mineral supplements like bone meal, blood meal and oyster.

Birds are raised for egg or meat production. Birds require different types of feeds depending on the purpose of production

• Chicks mash – fed to day old chicks until they are about 8weeks old
• Growers mash – fed to growers from about 8weeks to 16weeks
• Layers mash – fed to pullets (layers) from 16weeks to the age at which they are sold
• Broiler starter – fed to broilers from 9weeks to 14weeks
• Broiler finisher – fed to broilers from 14weeks until they are big enough to be sold

Rabbits feed almost on any type of green vegetable. Legumes of high quality such as groundnut, stylosanthes, cowpea, mucuna are commonly used for feeding rabbits. The above feeds should be supplemented with cereal, grains, potato leaves, ripe mangoes, carrot peels and mineral salt. Rabbits require regular supply of clean water.

Weaning – Young animals receiving milk from their mothers should allowed to be nursed until when they are no longer satisfied with breast feeding.

Hygiene – All farm animals should be properly provided with clean and well ventilated housing as well as dry bedding. They should be vaccinated at regular intervals against certain diseases during their stages of growth. Feed additives should be added to their feed to protect them. Examples are drugs, antibiotics and vitamins. Sick animals should be separated from the healthy ones to prevent spread of diseases.

Rearing of Farm Animals to maturity – Rearing is the sum total of all the processes and activities involved in bringing farm animals to maturity. In includes the provision of suitable housing, feeding and health care. After birth, farm animals like ruminant pigs and rabbits are allowed to feed on the milk from their mother’s mammary glands and then they are weaned. After weaning, they are separated from the dam or doe and introduced to solid feeding. They are housed separately from the adults. Ruminants can feed on roughages on their own while pigs and rabbits are provided with their feeds. Routine livestock management practices like dehorning, tattooing, branding, castration should be done when necessary.

In poultry production, pullets that will eggs are kept in deep litter houses after brooding. They are fed with balanced diet containing about 18% protein until they start to lay eggs at about 16 – 20 weeks. Layers should be culled when they are too old or when production is low.  Broilers are reared in deep litter houses and they are first fed with broiler starter then broiler finisher. Properly managed broilers should weigh 2.5 to 3kg between 9 and 12 weeks of age. Cattle grow to market size from 12 – 20 months with live weight of 200 – 360kg, goat 10 – 14months with live weight of 40 – 60kg, pigs 7 months with weight of 60 – 70 kg, sheep 8 – 12 months with live weight of 35 – 45kg.

Marketing of Livestock – In Nigeria, the northern part supplies the major quantity of meat which is consumed in the south. The producers sell the animals to the middlemen who in turn sell them to customers in the south. Live animals are slaughtered and sold fresh for consumption.

ASSESSMENT

-What are the management requirement in Animal Husbandry and can you explain each of them?

Soil Conservation

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 9

Topic: Soil Conservation

Conservation can be defined as a wisely planned use of any natural resources in order to avoid exploitation, destruction and neglect. It aims at providing maximum returns from a resource by avoiding waste and depletion through restoration and improvement at all times

Soil Conservation refers to the intelligent use of soil so that enough plant nutrients are available to plants for growth and production at all times. It prevents or reduces loss of plant nutrients from soil erosion, excessive leaching and other poor land management practices. 

Importance of Soil Conservation

1. It brings about the wise use of naturl resources which will help protect the natural environment from indiscriminate destruction
2. It helps to prevent soil erosion
3. It helps to support the growth of valuable wood for building and furniture
4. Soil is important for farming activities
5. Soil supports wild life
6. Buildings are erected in the soil
7. Soil is the home of micro organisms which help to decompose organic matter
8. Mineral resources are obtained in the soil

Methods of Conserving Soil

1. Prevention of bush burning which will expose the soil to erosion
2. Adoption of better farming practices like crop rotation which will replenish the soil nutrients, and prevent leaching 
3. Avoidance of overgrazing which may expose the soil to erosion
4. Prevention of deforestation and indiscriminate felling of trees which may expose the soil to erosion
5. Avoidance of clean clearing
6. Avoidance of land pollution which may kill soil microorganisms

Ways in Which Plant Nutrients are Lost in the Soil

1. Soil erosion – This is the gradual washing away of the top soil by agents of denudation such as water, wind and ice. The extent of the erosion is determined by the intensity and duration of rainfall, slope of the land, degree of exposure and the structure/texture of the soil
   Water Erosion – This is the detachment and transportation of soil particles by rain water, melting or melted ice. It can be divided into three; sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion.
   Wind Erosion – This type of erosion is common in arid lands where there is little or no rainfall. Soil particles are loosely arranged so that it is possible for wind to remove the particles which are then carried into greater heights for hundreds of kilometers.
   Methods of Controlling Water Erosion
   • Establishment of vegetation cover such as trees, shrubs, cover crops and grasses
   • Avoidance of Bush burning which destroys the dense vegetation and leaves which cover the soil surface
   • Avoidance of Excessive grazing
   • Terracing is the leveling of a hilly or slopy land in the form of step 
   • Construction of water channels along a steep slope so that running water will not affect the slope
   • Ridges may be constructed across the slope to reduce the speed of run off
   • Strip cropping involves dividing the land into strips with the result that some strips are uncultivated between the cultivated ones.
2. Plant Uptake – Different crops require different nutrients for growth and development. These nutrients are usually supplied by the soil. If planting continues on the same piece of land without replenishing the lost nutients, it will result in poor growth and low yield
3. Leaching – This is the removal of plant nutrients by percolation and infiltration of rain as it carries nutrients to a depth beyond the reach of plant roots. Leaching can be reduced by planting cover crops, addition of organic matter
4. Burning – This is normally done to save labour and to ease farm operations. Burning produces ash which contains plant food and therefore increases the fertility of the soil. It increases the humus content and organic matter of the soil. However burning exposes the soil to agents of erosion and it also kills soil microorganisms.

Human Activities that lead to loss of Soil Fertility

1. Bush burning – Setting of fire on the bush to clear out the vegetation. Bush burning destroys the organic matter of the soil, soil organisms and exposes soil to erosion
2. Tillage – This is the process of working up and breaking the soil to loosen it for the penetration of plant root. Tillage encourages leaching.
3. Over-grazing – When more animals than the carrying capacity of a rangeland are put there. This leads to poor growth and low regenerative capacity of the soil
4. Fertilizer application – The application of chemical substances to the soil to improve its fertility. Excessive application can cause soil acidity
5. Deforestation – This is the destruction of the forest by humans. Deforestation reduces the organic matter content of the soil.

Problems of Soil Conservation

1. Soil erosion
2. Land pollution
3. Overgrazing caused by animals
4. Indiscriminate bush burning and felling of trees
5. Adoption of poor farming practices
6. Problem of oil spillage which pollutes the rivers

Practice Questions

Conservation, Soil erosion, Leaching, Soil Conversation, Deforestation, Tillage, Bush Burning

Use the options above to answer the follwoing options

1. When animals overgraze the soil, ____ is  lost.

2. ____ is the destruction of forest by humans.

3. ____ is the removal of plant nutrients by percolation and infiltration of rain as it carries nutrients to a depth beyond the reach of plant roots.

4. _____ is the gradual washing away of the top soil by agents of denundation such as water, wind and ice.

5. _____  is the process of working up and breaking the soil to loosen it for the penetration of plant root.

Answers

1. Soil fertility
2. Deforestation
3. Leaching
4. Soil erosion
5. Tillage

Farm Animal Parasites

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 10

Topic: Farm Animal Parasites

Introduction

A parasite is an organism which live in and derive all its nourishment such as food, shelter and protection from another organism called the host giving back nothing in return. Only the parasites derives benefit from the association while the host suffers inconveniences or it may be injured or harmed in the process. A parasite is an organism living in or on another organism called the host. The host is usually bigger and stronger than the parasite. The parasite derives benefits from the host while the host is harmed or injured during the association. Endoparasite are parasites that live inside the host e.g. tapeworm, liver fluke while Ectoparasite lives outside the host e.g ticks, lice, mites.

Classification of Farm Animal Parasite

Classification is into two – endoparasites and ectoparasites.

Endoparasite

These are parasites that live inside the body of farm animals and obtain food, shelter and protection. They live mostly in the intestine, bile duct, muscle or heart of farm animals. Examples are tape worm, liver fluke, bladder worm, round worm.

Example of Endoparasite

Liver Fluke – This is a flattened, leaf like organism. It is brown in colour about 2cm long. An endo parasite of farm animals like cattle, sheep and goat. Farm animals are primary host while snail is a secondary host
Life Cycle
Fertilised eggs are passed out with faeces. During favourable conditions, the egg hatch into small ciliated larvae called miracidia. Each miracidium swims in water and its usually attracted to water snail which is the secondary host. It enters into the body of the snail during whict it loses its cilia and changes to a sporocyst and reproduces asexually to give new larvae called rediae. The redia comes out of the sporocyst and goes to the digestive gland where it develops into a minute worm called cercariae. This leaves the body of the snail and swims about in water until it finds a suitable host when the animal drinks contaminated water.
How to prevent Liver fluke from completing its life cycle
– Eliminate all snails which are their secondary host
– Provide clear, uninfested water and feed for animals
– Control weeds along river side
Economic Importance of Liver fluke
– It causes a disease called bilharzia
– It leads to loss of blood and it also causes anaemia
– It obstructs bile duct
– It causes liver rot
– It leads to digestive disturbance
Control
– Drain pasture properly
– Use lime on pasture
– Introduce ducks and geese to eat up the snail

Ectoparasite

These are parasites found outside the body of farm animals. They cling to the skin of farm animals and suck their blood. Examples of ectoparasites are ticks, lice, mites and fleas.

Ticks – Body is divided into 2 – head and abdomen. It has four pairs of tough leathery integument and possesses a toothed hypostone. Life cycle is from Egg (a mature female tick after sucking blood from its host drops down and lays her eggs) – larva (the egg hatches into larvae with six legs. The larva crawls into the grass and attaches itself to the skin of the animal) – Nymph (The larva moults into a nymph with eight legs and attaches itself to a second host – Adult (The nymph finally moults into an adult tick which crawls into the the grass and attaches itself onto a third host).
Economic Importance
– They cause great annoyance and irritation to their host
– Damage of the skin
– Loss of blood and weight
– They cause injuries and wounds on their host
– They act as vectors of diseases
Control
– Animals should be kept in a clean surrounding
– Animals should be dipped in insecticide solutions regularly
– Rotational grazing should be practiced
– Ticks should be handpicked off animals
– Animal bedding should be changed regularly

Effects of Parasites on Farm Animals

1. Loss of appetite
2. Anaemia
3. Loss of condition and weight
4. Diarrhoea
5. Low production
6. Coughing
7. Skin lesions
8. Fever
9. Unthriftiness
10. Breathing difficulty

Methods of Preventing and Controlling Farm Animals

1. Farm animals should be vaccinated regularly so as to be able to resist the invasion of diseases
2. All sick animals should be isolated and not allowed to mix with healthy ones
3. Disease resistant stocks should be bred
4. New stock introduced into the farm should be quarantined
5. Good and proper hygiene measures should be put in place
6. Animals should be fed balanced diet
7. Regular deworming
8. Maintain healthy stock
9. Washing and disinfection of farm houses regularly
10. Good sanitation measures
11. Breaking of their life cycle
12. Regular spraying and dipping of farm animals
13. Faeces should be regularly removed to avoid feed and water contamination

Practice Questions

1. ____ live inside the body of farm animals and obtain food, shelter and protection

2. The ____ is an organism which live in and derive all its nourishment such as food, shelter and protection from another organism called the host giving back nothing in return

3. List 4 effects of parasites on farm animals

4. One of the following is an endoparasite 
a. ticks
b. lice
c. mites 
d. liver fluke

5. One of the following is not an endo parasite
a. liver fluke
b. round worm
c. tick
d. tape worm

Answers

1. Endoparasite
2. Parasite
3. Loss of appetite
   Anaemia
   Loss of condition and weight
   Diarrhoea
   Low production
   Coughing
   Skin lesions
4. D
5. C

Disease Causing Organisms

Agriculture JSS2 Second Term

Week 11

Topic: Disease Causing Organisms

Introduction

Disease causing organisms are living organisms which are capable of causing disease in other living organisms. They are generally known as pathogens. 

Diseases can be defined as the absence of normal health due to infection, nutritional deficiency and imbalance, hereditary and functional disorders as well as injuries. Diseases can also be described as any disturbance in the normal life or body function of an organism which may affect a particular organ or the whole body and sometimes leads to reduced growth, production or premature death.

Types of Diseases

1. Peracute disease – one that lasts only for a short time with no noticeable symptoms
2. Acute disease – This shows noticeable symptoms and manifests maximum causality
3. Sub – acute disease – This lasts more than acute with one or more symptoms of the disease
4. Chronic disease – This is the type that keeps on longer causing loss of growth and production but no resulting death of the animal

Causes of Disease

• Virus
• Bacteria
• Fungi
• Protozoa
• Malnutrition or metabolic disorder

Signs of disease in farm animals

1. Unthriftiness
2. Lack of appetite
3. Dullness
4. Rough coat
5. Ruffled feather in poultry
6. Wasting
7. Diarrhea or water stool
8. Premature abortion
9. Increased mortality rate
10. Discharge from mouth and eyes
11. Decrease in activities
12. Loss of weight
13. Blood stains in faeces
14. Reduced production

Groups of Disease Causing Organisms

Fungal Disease

Aspergilosis
Animals affected – cattle, poultry birds, pigs and sheep
Caused by Aspergillus fumigatus
Symptoms
– Loss of weight
– High body temperature
– Loss of appetite
– Difficulty in Breathing
– Skin irritation 
– Respiratory disorder
Method of Transmission 
Via contaminated (mouldy) feed, mouldy litter and contaminated incubator
Control – 
– Regular disinfection of pens and equipment
– Avoid mouldy feed
– Good sanitation
– Spry with fungicides

Protozoan Disease

Trypanosomiasis

Animals affected – Resistant breeds of cattle are N’Dama, Muturu and Keteku while susceptible breeds are White Fulani, Red Bororo, Kuri Chad, Sokoto Gudali and Boran.
Causal Organism
It is caused by a protozoan called Trypanosoma spp.
Symptoms are
– Rise in body temperature
– dullness in appearance
– anaemia
– sleepiness
– weakness
– dry coat
– nervous disorder
– loss of appetite and weight
Method of Transmission
Spread by blood sucking tsetse fly.
Control 
i.   Clearing of bush around farm to remove the fly’s habitat
ii.  Biological control of insect vectors
iii. Treatment of infected animals with drugs such as antimosan, trypanosomide
iv.  Eradication of wild species or animal carriers in and around pasture

Viral Disease

Foot and Mouth Disease
Animals affected are – cattle, sheep and goat
Causal Organism – Virus
Symptoms
– Formation of blisters on the mucous membrane of the mouth and skin, hoofs
– Salivation
– Loss of weight
– Lameness
– Inflammation of teats and udder
Method of Transmission – Via infected materials like urine, faeces and milk. Mechanical means by farmers
Control
Isolation of infected animals. Burning and burying of contaminated materials. Regular vaccination

Bacterial Disease

Anthrax – affects cattle, sheep, goat and pigs.
Causal organisam – Bacillus anthraxis
Symptoms 
– high fever
– Depression
– Blood oozes from nose, mouth and anus
– Loss of weight
– Lack of appetite
– Staggering and sudden death
Method of transmission – via contaminated feed, water, equipment and infected animals
Control 
– Regular Vaccination
– Proper Sanitation
– Isolation of infected Animals

Practice Questions

1. Explain the types of diseases

2. Mention 3 causes of diseases

3. List  symptoms of diseases in Animals

Answers

1 . Peracute disease – one that lasts only for a short time with no noticeable symptoms
Acute disease – This shows noticeable symptoms and manifests maximum causality
Sub – acute disease – This lasts more than acute with one or more symptoms of the disease
Chronic disease – This is the type that keeps on longer causing loss of growth and production but no resulting death of the animal

2. Bacteria
Fungi
Protozoa
Malnutrition or metabolic disorder
Virus

3. Unthriftiness
Lack of appetite
Dullness
Rough coat
Ruffled feather in poultry
Wasting
Diarrhea or water stool
Premature abortion
Increased mortality rate
Discharge from mouth and eyes